Rice & Health Benefits

September 13, 2022September 13, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Rice is a main staple in more than 100 countries worldwide. In some households, rice is included with more than one meal a day.

Rice is a main staple in more than 100 countries worldwide. [1] In some households, rice is included with more than one meal a day. This starchy high-calorie grain is generally low cost, making it accessible to all and a vital base of many diets. Each country showcases a rice specialty to reflect local spices and taste preferences: risotto in Italy, paella in Spain, jambalaya in the southern U.S., coconut rice in Colombia, steamed rice in China, rice and beans in Mexico, and sweet rice in Portugal, to name a few.

The scientific name for rice is Oryza. Oryza sativa is the most common species and is subdivided into the long-grain indica, and short-grain japonica. Tools for farming rice have been found in China dating back 8000 years. Merchant traders helped the gradual spread of rice across the continents.

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(primarily whole grain varieties)

Types

There are thousands of types of Oryza sativa, which can differ in size, thickness, stickiness, color, aroma, and flavor. Rice is often broadly categorized based on its shape or method of processing:

Long, short, or medium grain

This refers to the length and width of the rice grain after cooking:

Long grains have a slender kernel over four times as long as they are wide. When cooked, long grain rice stays separate and fluffy (e.g., Jasmine and Basmati rice).
Medium grains have a shorter, wider kernel, yielding a tender and semi-sticky consistency when cooked (e.g., Arborio rice).
Short grains have a kernel only twice as long as they are wide, and yield the stickiest texture when cooked (e.g., “sushi” rice).

Whole or refined grain

Is the rice in its whole, intact form (like “brown” rice), or has it been milled and polished (like “white” rice)?

Whole: Just like all whole grains, rice naturally contains three edible components—the bran, germ, and endosperm (the inedible hull is removed). “Brown” rice is the typical whole grain rice, though this describes not a particular variety but the natural color of the grain. However, whole grain rice is not limited to one color—it also comes in shades of black, purple, and red. Because the fibrous bran layer and nutrient-rich germ remain intact, these varieties typically take longer to cook, and have a nuttier and chewier texture than refined white rice.
Refined: Rice that is polished to remove the bran layers and embryo so that only the starchy white endosperm remains—hence the name “white” rice (again, this refers to the color and not one particular variety). The milling and polishing process removes the majority of naturally occurring B vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and fiber, so B vitamins and iron are added back. Food labels will display the term “enriched” to indicate this. However, only a fraction of the original amount of these nutrients is added back.

Of course, when it comes to cooking, specific varieties of rice are often chosen for their unique characteristics. Here are a few popular types:

Arborio: A medium-grain rice popular for making risotto and puddings. It undergoes less milling than long-grain rice so it retains more starch, which is released during cooking to produce a naturally creamy consistency without becoming mushy. Unlike other rice cooking methods, water must be added to Arborio rice gradually in segments, with constant stirring, to produce the creamy texture of risotto. Arborio rice is available in both brown and white versions.
Basmati, Jasmine: These are varieties of long-grain rice with fragrant aromas that are available in both brown and white versions.
Black (Forbidden), Purple, or Red: These types of short or medium-grain colorful rice contain a natural plant phytochemical called anthocyanins, a flavonoid with antioxidant properties that is also found in blueberries and blackberries. Their nutritious bran and germ layers are intact similar to brown rice.
Glutinous: Named for its glue-like consistency (not for gluten, which it does not contain), this short-grain rice is especially sticky when cooked. This is because it contains primarily one component of starch, called amylopectin, while other types of rice contain both amylopectin and amylose. Glutinous rice is particularly popular throughout Asia, and is available in a range of colors including white, brown, and black/purple.

Rice & Health

Diabetes

Because large amounts of rice are eaten in some countries, along with an increasing worldwide prevalence of type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance, rice intake’s effect on health has been studied.

The glycemic index (GI) is a measure of how quickly and how much a food raises one’s blood sugar levels after eating. Rice is considered a high GI food but it varies depending on the type and amount of processing (processing increases the GI). Reports show the GI of rice ranging from 48-93. [2] Low GI foods have a rating of 55 or less, medium GI foods are 56-69, and high GI foods are 70-100. The average GI for brown rice is low at 55, whereas the GI for white rice is higher at 64. [3] Observational studies have found an association between a high GI diet and greater risk for type 2 diabetes.

A meta-analysis of seven large cohort studies in Asian and Western populations found a 55% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes when comparing the highest to lowest intakes of white rice in Asians. This same study also found a minor increased risk in Western populations, although the finding was not significant, potentially a result of their lower overall rice intake. [4] Another meta-analysis of 16 international cohort studies evaluating whole grain and refined grain intake found a 32% risk reduction in type 2 diabetes risk with a high whole grain intake including brown rice (3 servings daily), while white rice was associated with an increased risk of diabetes in some studies but not all. [5]
In another study observing three large prospective cohorts in the U.S. of 39,765 men and 157,463 women, it was found that those who ate five or more servings of white rice weekly compared with those eating less than one serving a month had a 17% increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. In contrast, the highest intakes of brown rice of two or more servings weekly compared with the lowest intake of less than one serving a month was associated with an 11% reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. [3]

The message of these studies was consistent with public health recommendations to replace refined grains with whole grains, and to choose at least two servings of whole grains a day to reduce type 2 diabetes risk.

Cardiovascular Health

In a large cohort study of 71,750 women from the Nurses’ Health Study and 42,823 men from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, intakes of brown rice did not lower the risk of ischemic stroke. [6] However, intakes of brown rice in this group were generally lower than intakes of other grain foods that did decrease stroke risk like whole grain cereals and bran. A systematic review of 45 studies on whole grains did not find a reduced risk of stroke, heart disease, or cancer from intakes of either white or brown rice. [7]

Should I be concerned about arsenic in rice?

Arsenic is a naturally occurring heavy metal found in soil, rock, and water. The term “total arsenic” includes organic and inorganic arsenic compounds. Organic arsenic is found mostly in seafood and is considered less toxic. Inorganic arsenic is toxic and found in soil, groundwater, and industrial chemicals. Though a high amount of inorganic arsenic is deadly, long-term exposure to lower levels is also concerning as it may increase the risk of various diseases.

In 2012, reports surfaced about the potentially high levels of inorganic arsenic in rice. [8] The amount in our food supply results largely from contaminated groundwater and soil from livestock manure, fertilizer, pesticides, and industrial waste. [9] This is concerning to individuals who eat rice daily. Epidemiological studies have shown that long-term exposure to arsenic can lead to high blood pressure, diabetes, and respiratory diseases. Exposure to arsenic at young ages has been linked to certain cancers and neurological defects. [1]

Arsenic accumulates in rice 10 times more than in other grains due to being cultivated in water-flooded fields, where irrigation water as well as the soil may be contaminated with arsenic. [10] The rice grain easily absorbs arsenic into its roots through water. In the U.S., rice grown in southern states contains high amounts of arsenic because of residual metals in the soil from the historical use of arsenic-laced pesticides to treat cotton crops. Rice products such as rice cereal and rice crackers may also contain high levels of arsenic. The amount of arsenic in other types of rice such as black or red depends on the exact species and the amount of inorganic arsenic in the soil and water supply, which can vary greatly by region.

There is no federal limit for arsenic in food and beverages other than water. The standard for drinking water is 10 parts per billion (ppb). One report found as much as 193 ppm in brown rice grown in the southern U.S. [2] A later report by the FDA also found high levels with an average concentration of 154 ppb in brown rice. [11]

Early life exposure to arsenic increases the risk of negative health effects later in life. Non-profit organizations have pushed for federal standards limiting the amount of arsenic in the food supply. Congress introduced a bill in 2012 called the RICE Act (Reducing food-based Inorganic and Organic Compounds Exposure Act) to establish limits on the amount of total arsenic allowed in rice and rice products. [12] In 2016, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) drafted a proposed limit of 100 ppb in infant rice cereal and juice, but further action by the FDA or voluntary standards by manufacturers have not been established. [13] The FDA advised that parents give infants a variety of fortified cereals other than rice such as oat, barley, and multigrain. Pregnant women and toddlers should also eat a variety of whole grains other than rice. [14]

Additional ways to reduce arsenic exposure from rice:

Brown rice contains higher levels of arsenic than white rice because the metal accumulates in outer layers of the grain. However, it is not recommended to choose white rice as a staple due to its lesser health benefits. If eating brown rice, wash the rice well, cook in extra water (example: 6-10 cups of water per 1 cup rice as suggested by the FDA), drain the excess water after the grain is cooked, and then rinse one more time. This removes about 50% of arsenic, but keep in mind that some water-soluble B vitamins will also be lost.
Try other whole grains lower in arsenic like amaranth, bulgur, wheat berries, millet, and quinoa.

If you eat brown rice or brown rice products frequently or more than four times a week, consider purchasing brands grown in non-polluted regions (such as California as opposed to Arkansas or Texas).

Prepare

Before cooking, rinse rice in cool water until it runs clear to remove excess starch. If rice is obtained from bulk bins, rinsing also helps to remove dust or any unwanted material. It may then be soaked to reduce cooking time and stickiness. Keep in mind that excess washing and rinsing may remove some water-soluble B vitamins, especially for polished enriched white rice, in which the vitamins have been sprayed onto the surface of the grain.
Rice is typically boiled in water or steamed, as it absorbs water and softens during the cooking process. Long-grain varieties tend to produce fluffy separated grains after cooking, while short or medium grains become sticky.

Make

Follow package directions as different varieties of rice require differing amounts of water and cook times. In general, use a 2:1 ratio for cooking rice, or 2 cups of water per 1 cup of rice. Bring water to a boil in a saucepan. Add rice and stir into water. Place a lid on the pot and reduce heat to low-medium. Simmer for about 20 minutes for white rice, and 40-45 minutes for brown rice and other minimally processed varieties. Remove from heat and allow to steam in the covered pot for 5-10 minutes. Fluff rice with a fork to separate the grains.
For extra flavor, use chicken or vegetable broth instead of water while cooking, or add spices into the cooking water. If using fresh chopped herbs, such as chopped parsley, dill, or chives, gently stir them into cooked rice after it is removed from the heat but still steaming in the pot.
Easy ways to use cooked rice or leftover rice:
- Sauté chopped vegetables and cooked meat or tofu in a pan, then add cooked rice and stir mixture well.
- Add bulk to soup by throwing in a cup of cooked rice.
- Add a handful of cooked rice to a salad.
- For an easy vegan rice bowl, mix together one cup of cooked rice, ½ cup cooked beans, ½ cup salsa, and a handful of greens.

More recipes featuring rice:

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Did You Know?

There are over 40,000 varieties of rice worldwide!
Wild rice is not in the same rice family as Oryza sativa. It is actually a seed from a grassy aquatic plant. It is high in fiber and minerals and contains slightly more protein than brown rice. It possesses such an intense nutty flavor that is often mixed with milder tasting grains.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

References

Liu K, Zheng J, Chen F. Effects of washing, soaking and domestic cooking on cadmium, arsenic and lead bioaccessibilities in rice. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2018 Jan 24.
Boers HM, ten Hoorn JS, Mela DJ. A systematic review of the influence of rice characteristics and processing methods on postprandial glycaemic and insulinaemic responses. British Journal of Nutrition. 2015 Oct;114(7):1035-45.
Sun Q, Spiegelman D, van Dam RM, Holmes MD, Malik VS, Willett WC, Hu FB. White rice, brown rice, and risk of type 2 diabetes in US men and women. Archives of internal medicine. 2010 Jun 14;170(11):961-9.
Hu EA, Pan A, Malik V, Sun Q. White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis and systematic review. Bmj. 2012 Mar 15;344:e1454.
Aune D, Norat T, Romundstad P, Vatten LJ. Whole grain and refined grain consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of cohort studies. European journal of epidemiology. 2013 Nov 1;28(11):845-58.
Juan J, Liu G, Willett WC, Hu FB, Rexrode KM, Sun Q. Whole Grain Consumption and Risk of Ischemic Stroke: Results From 2 Prospective Cohort Studies. Stroke. 2017 Dec;48(12):3203-9.
Aune D, Keum N, Giovannucci E, Fadnes LT, Boffetta P, Greenwood DC, Tonstad S, Vatten LJ, Riboli E, Norat T. Whole grain consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all cause and cause specific mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Bmj. 2016 Jun 14;353:i2716.
Consumer Reports. Arsenic in your food. November 2012. https://consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm. Accessed 7/16/18.
Nachman KE, Ginsberg GL, Miller MD, Murray CJ, Nigra AE, Pendergrast CB. Mitigating dietary arsenic exposure: Current status in the United States and recommendations for an improved path forward. Science of the Total Environment. 2017 Mar 1;581:221-36.
Davis MA, Signes-Pastor AJ, Argos M, Slaughter F, Pendergrast C, Punshon T, Gossai A, Ahsan H, Karagas MR. Assessment of human dietary exposure to arsenic through rice. Science of The Total Environment. 2017 May 15;586:1237-44.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Arsenic in Rice and Rice Products Risk Assessment Report. 2016. http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/RiskSafetyAssessment/default.htm. Accessed 7/16/18.
RICE Act (Reducing food-based Inorganic and Organic Compounds Exposure Act of 2012), H.R.6509, 112th Congress (2011-2012).
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Inorganic Arsenic in Rice Cereals for Infants: Action Level; Draft Guidance for Industry. Federal Register. 81 FR 19976: 19976-19978. https://federalregister.gov/documents/2016/04/06/2016-07840/inorganic-arsenic-in-rice-cereals-for-infants-action-level-draft-guidance-for-industry-supporting. Accessed 7/16/18.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA proposes limit for inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal. April 6, 2016. https://fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm493740.htm. Accessed 7/16/18.

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Quinoa & Health Benefits

September 12, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Quinoa & Health Benefits

Quinoa “keen-wah” is a type of edible seed that comes in various colors including black, red, yellow, and white. The plant has been cultivated for about 5000 years and is indigenous to the Andean region of South America, specifically Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Peru. After the seeds are harvested they undergo processing to remove the natural saponins, a bitter-tasting chemical compound coating the exterior that acts as a natural pesticide.

Quinoa is usually harvested by hand due to the differing levels of maturity of the seeds even within one plant. Therefore seed losses may occur if mechanically harvested. However, in the U.S., seed varieties that have a more consistent maturity are selected to allow for mechanical processing.

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Quinoa and Health

Though technically a seed, Quinoa is classified as a whole grain and is a good source of plant protein and fiber. One cup cooked provides about 8 grams of protein and 5 grams of fiber. Unlike some plant proteins, quinoa is a complete protein, meaning that it contains all nine essential amino acids that our bodies cannot make on their own.
Quinoa is also naturally gluten-free and can be eaten safely if one has gluten intolerance such as celiac disease.

Make

Packaged quinoa is usually pre-rinsed but some brands may advise rinsing before cooking to remove any remaining saponins. Use a fine mesh strainer to catch the small seeds and run the quinoa under cool water for a few passes.
Quinoa is prepared similarly to rice using two parts liquid to one part dry quinoa. One cup of dry quinoa will yield 3 cups cooked, and can be prepared in water, stock, or other liquids. You may also add herbs or spices during cooking such as bay leaves, marjoram, thyme, black pepper, or garlic or onion powder.
Add the seeds, liquid, and desired herbs to a pot and bring to a boil on high heat. When a rolling boil is reached, reduce heat to low, cover the pot, and simmer for about 15 minutes or until tender. You may notice a little white “tail” unfold when it is fully cooked; this is the nutritious germ. Fluff with a fork. If the quinoa is too wet or you prefer a drier quinoa, drain the cooked quinoa in a strainer and return to the pot. Cover and let sit for 15 minutes to dry out further.
- For easier cooking, quinoa can be prepared in a rice cooker with the same ratio of 1 cup quinoa to 2 cups water.

Serve

Prepare as a breakfast cereal by cooking the quinoa in milk or water. Stir in diced fresh fruit, cinnamon, and a tablespoon of nuts.
Substitute quinoa in place of rice in stir-fries and sushi.
Add a half to one cup of cooked quinoa to salads or soups for more heartiness.
Replace pasta with quinoa in pasta salad recipes.
Pop quinoa similarly to popcorn. Place a 6-inch deep pot over medium-high heat. When the pan is very hot, add enough quinoa to cover the bottom of the pan in a single layer. Turn the heat to medium, then cover and shake the pot to ensure a more even temperature and less burnt seeds. Open the lid slightly a few times to allow steam to escape. Continue shaking the pan until popping slows or you smell burning. Pour the grains onto a baking sheet to cool. Season as desired.

More recipe ideas and serving suggestions featuring quinoa:

Quinoa Chia Edamame Veggie Burger

The Whole (Grain) is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts

Whole grains—think brown rice, steel cut oats, and quinoa—are composed of three edible parts, the fiber-filled bran, the vitamin-packed germ, and the starchy endosperm. Alternatively, refined grains like white rice, bread, and pasta, are all endosperm, as the refining process strips away the bran and germand all the nutrients they contain. Even though many refined grains are “fortified” with vitamins and minerals, fortification cannot replace all the lost nutrients. Additionally refined grains are digested and absorbed very quickly by the body, which can be rough on blood sugar and insulin levels. As the Harvard Chan Department of Nutrition’s Dr. Frank Hu says, when it comes to whole grains “the ‘whole’ is indeed greater than the sum of its parts.”

In a recent Harvard Chan School event focused on learning about (and tasting) whole grains, Dr. Hu shared the latest research and offered attendees some key take-home messages:

A whole grain contains all of the bran, germ, and endosperm in its kernel.
Whole grains can provide multiple health benefits in terms of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, digestive health, and possibly cancer.
There are many sources of whole grains! With such variety, look beyond the bread aisle and try something new like freekeh or bulgur.
Carefully look at labels and ingredients of whole grain products to make sure they include enough whole grains and no added sugar or coloring—just because a package says “whole grain” doesn’t necessarily mean it’s healthy.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Did You Know?

There are more than 120 known varieties of quinoa. White and yellow quinoa have the mildest flavor, so they are good varieties to try first. Red and black quinoa have slightly stronger, earthier flavors and tend to hold their shape better than lighter colored quinoa.

Sugar has been singled out as one of the worst dietary offenders. However, you make the case that highly processed carbohydrates and potato products are just as bad. Should there be more public health campaigns focused on carbohydrate quality as opposed to sugar-sweetened beverages, which most people already know are unhealthy?

With trans-fat now leaving the food supply, highly processed carbohydrate now comprises the most unhealthful component of the food supply. Added sugar has received lots of attention recently – and for good reason. However, Americans consume more calories from refined grains and potatoes than from sugar. Starchy foods like white bread, white rice, potato products, crackers and cookies digest quickly into glucose, raise insulin levels, program the body for excessive weight gain and increase risk for chronic disease.

Indeed, an exclusive focus on sugar could miss the mark in two ways:

1) By discouraging consumption of whole fruits, the natural delivery vehicle for sugar. Whole fruits have numerous health benefits, and virtually no side effects for most people because the sugar is digested and absorbed from whole foods slowly.

2) By leading to an increase in refined grain intake. For example, highly processed rice cereal and table sugar may taste different, but below the neck they both cause metabolic problems.

The distinction between sugar and starch is largely meaningless from a biological perspective. The key public health challenge today is to reduce intake of all highly processed carbohydrates in favor of whole carbohydrates (fruits, vegetables, legumes and minimally processed grains) and healthful fats (like nuts, avocado and olive oil).

Much of your research focuses on the glycemic index. In a 2015 article you wrote that reports of its demise have been exaggerated (3). Is the glycemic index still a useful tool for the average consumer, and if so, how can people incorporate it into their lives in a practical way?

The glycemic index (GI) is a scientific term that describes how controlled amounts of carbohydrate affect blood glucose (and by implication, insulin levels) after consumption.

When first proposed in 1981, the GI was a radical notion because it implicitly suggested that all carbohydrates aren’t alike, contrary to conventional opinion. Since then hundreds of clinical trials, observational studies and mechanistic investigations have laid a solid foundation for understanding why a high GI diet could harm health. Of course, like any area in nutritional research, not every study comes to exactly the same conclusions – in part because of the inherent complexities of diet and the difficulties of conducting high quality long-term trials. Also, some experts have criticized GI because a few ostensibly unhealthy foods have a low GI (like ice cream or the sugar fructose). However, no single dietary component could ever adequately describe a healthful diet. Though protein is indisputably critical to health, we wouldn’t focus entirely on that one nutrient to the exclusion of everything else.

The bottom line is that GI has been extremely useful in the research setting for characterizing carbohydrate quality. But for most people, there’s no need to “eat by the numbers” – either glycemic index, total calories (4) or any other scale. Choosing whole instead of highly processed carbohydrates will naturally result in a low GI diet that will also have many other nutritious aspects including high content of fiber, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. (Note: Use of GI as a guide to food selection may have specific benefit for people with diabetes or other severe metabolic problems.)

In an editorial published in NEJM, you suggest that diets low in glycemic index and moderately high in protein should be given special consideration, as they may reduce glycemic load and promote weight loss – and also might be less psychologically burdensome because no macronutrient or major food group is entirely omitted (5).

How do carbs figure in to a “low glycemic and moderately high protein” diet – is carbohydrate quality more important than the amount?

The optimal macronutrient ratio – that is, the relative proportions of protein, carbohydrate and fat – has been the subject of intense debate for decades. Despite hundreds of studies on the topic, we still don’t know whether one special combination is best for everyone, or which ratios are best for specific medical conditions. In the absence of definitive data, much can be learned by taking the truly long-term perspective – that humans across the globe have done well on diets with widely ranging macronutrients. The Inuits in the far North traditionally ate mostly fat and protein; whereas some native populations in the tropics consumed mostly carbohydrate.

Ultimately, the choice of how to balance macronutrients is individual, influenced by culture, food availability, and personal preference. So long as adequate attention is directly to food quality, the relative ratios are probably of secondary importance in most situations (again, excepting individuals with metabolic problems like insulin resistance). That said, it becomes increasing difficult to avoid excessive intake of processed carbohydrates as total carbohydrate rises. For that reason, many people will benefit by increasing intake of foods high in fat and protein (including plant-based sources).

Can you talk more about carbohydrate quality – what are some of the best and worst sources, and how can people more easily determine what to eat? For example, many products claim to be whole wheat, but in actuality may still be highly refined. Also, is there a daily amount of carbohydrate – in grams, or in serving sizes – that people should aim for?

A primary focus on the nutritional factors on a label has at times backfired, leading to the creation of industrial food products that might satisfying guidelines but undermine health. Heavily milled “whole grain” flour may have the same fiber content as natural whole kernel grains, but they digest much faster, causing more rapid swings in blood glucose and higher insulin levels. Especially when eating grains, choose traditional versions our ancestors would have eaten – steel-cut (old-fashion) oatmeal, farro, whole barley and rye, buckwheat and quinoa. In addition, a wide range of unprocessed carbohydrates can contribute to diet quality, including whole fruits (especially non-tropical varieties), non-starchy vegetables, legumes and nuts.

Carbohydrates have been a hot topic in nutrition for decades – two popular “fad” diets were the Atkins diet and the South Beach Diet, both of which limited carbohydrate consumption. Is it possible that these diets actually had some substance behind the hype?

The fastest way to stabilize blood glucose and lower insulin levels is to reduce carbohydrate. The Atkins and South Beach Diets achieved great popularity during the low-fat craze by offering an effective antidote to all the processed carbohydrate in the American diet. For many people, these low carbohydrate diets have produced tangible benefits, for sound scientific reasons.

In recent years, very-low- and no- carb diets have become more popular, and ketogenic diets – which are higher in fat and lower in carbohydrate, forcing the body to use fat as the primary fuel source – are sometimes implemented for therapeutic purposes. Do you see these types of diets as useful in treating disease? Should people consider adopting ketogenic diets as a preventative measure?

For people with type 2 diabetes or related metabolic problems, very low carbohydrate diets including the ketogenic diet may offer an excellent long-term option. In some cases, a very low carbohydrate diet can reverse diabetes rapidly, without severe calorie deprivation. Much more research is needed in this area. But despite their potentially dramatic effects, very low carbohydrate diets can be difficult to maintain over the long-term. Replacing added sugars and refined starchy foods with unprocessed carbohydrate, healthful fats and proteins may provide many of the benefits of a very low carbohydrate diet, without having to eliminate an entire class of nutritious (and delicious) foods.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

References

Food and Drug Administration, HHS. Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Fiber From Certain Foods and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. Accessed 12/28/2017.
Bernstein AM, Titgemeier B, Kirkpatrick K, Golubic M, Roizen MF. Major cereal grain fibers and psyllium in relation to cardiovascular health. Nutrients. 2013 Apr 29;5(5):1471-87.
Kelly SA, Hartley L, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, Jones HM, Al‐Khudairy L, Clar C, Germanò R, Lunn HR, Frost G, Rees K. Whole grain cereals for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. The Cochrane Library. 2017 Jan 1.
Tang G, Wang D, Long J, Yang F, Si L. Meta-analysis of the association between whole grain intake and coronary heart disease risk. Am J Cardiol. 2015 Mar 1;115(5):625-9.
Helnæs A, Kyrø C, Andersen I, Lacoppidan S, Overvad K, Christensen J, Tjønneland A, Olsen A. Intake of whole grains is associated with lower risk of myocardial infarction: the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health Cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016 Feb 17;103(4):999-1007.
Tiwari U, Cummins E. Meta-analysis of the effect of β-glucan intake on blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Nutrition. 2011 Oct 1;27(10):1008-16.
Hou Q, Li Y, Li L, Cheng G, Sun X, Li S, Tian H. The metabolic effects of oats intake in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2015 Dec 10;7(12):10369-87.
Li X, Cai X, Ma X, Jing L, Gu J, Bao L, Li J, Xu M, Zhang Z, Li Y. Short-and long-term effects of wholegrain oat intake on weight management and glucolipid metabolism in overweight type-2 diabetics: a randomized control trial. Nutrients. 2016 Sep 7;8(9):549.
He LX, Zhao J, Huang YS, Li Y. The difference between oats and beta-glucan extract intake in the management of HbA1c, fasting glucose and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food funct. 2016;7(3):1413-28.
Rebello CJ, O’Neil CE, Greenway FL. Dietary fiber and satiety: the effects of oats on satiety. Nutrition reviews. 2015 Dec 31;74(2):131-47.
Slavin J. Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients. 2013 Apr 22;5(4):1417-35.

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Oats & Health Benefits

September 12, 2022September 12, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Oats & Health Benefits

Oats, formally named Avena sativa, is a type of cereal grain from the Poaceae grass family of plants. The grain refers specifically to the edible seeds of oat grass, which is what ends up in our breakfast bowls. Whether loved or hated for their mushy yet hearty texture when cooked, oats are most prized for their nutritional value and health benefits. The Food and Drug Administration allows the use of a health claim on food labels associating a reduced risk of coronary heart disease with the consumption of beta-glucan soluble fiber from whole grain oats. [1] Oatmeal is also a desired asset to those trying to lose weight and control hunger levels due to its high water and soluble fiber content.

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Types of Oats

Oats are available in a variety of forms, based on how they are processed. The following list shows the types of oats in order of least to most processing. Although the nutritional content between steel-cut and instant oats is relatively similar, their effects on blood sugar are not. The least processed oats, like groats or steel-cut, generally take longer to digest so they have a lower glycemic index than rolled or instant oats.

Oat Groats: The whole oat kernels that have been cleaned, with only the loose, inedible hulls removed. Groats contain the intact germ, endosperm, and bran.
- Oat bran, which contains the most fiber in a groat, is also removed and eaten as a cereal or added to recipes to boost fiber content.
Steel-Cut or Irish: Oat groats that have been cut into two or three smaller pieces either using a steel blade. The larger the size of the pieces, the longer they will take to cook.
Scottish Oats: Oat groats that have been stone-ground into a meal, creating a porridge-like texture when cooked.
Rolled or Old-Fashioned: Oat groats that have been steamed, rolled and flattened into flakes, and then dried to remove moisture so they are shelf-stable.
Quick or Instant: Oat groats that are steamed for a longer period and rolled into thinner pieces so that they can absorb water easily and cook very quickly. Be aware that many brands of instant oats come sweetened or flavored, so be sure to check the ingredients for no added sugar.

Oats and Health

Oats contain several components that have been proposed to exert health benefits. The primary type of soluble fiber in oats is beta-glucan, which has been researched to help slow digestion, increase satiety, and suppress appetite. Beta-glucan can bind with cholesterol-rich bile acids in the intestine and transport them through the digestive tract and eventually out of the body. Whole oats also contain plant chemicals called phenolic compounds and phytoestrogens that act as antioxidants to reduce the damaging effects of chronic inflammation that is associated with various diseases like cardiovascular disease and diabetes. [2]

Because available research specific to oats is limited, most of the studies below assessed whole grain intake, which included several types of whole grains in addition to oats. Therefore, the findings cannot be applied to oats alone.

Heart Disease: Oats are associated with heart health benefits, but research shows differing degrees of benefit. Part of the variation may be caused by meta-analyses or reviews that compared different types of studies, or compared different oat forms (oat groats vs. instant). Some studies analyzed not just oats intake but a more general whole-grain intake. Other studies did not specify the exact type of oats used.
- A systematic review of nine randomized controlled trials did not find adequate evidence to show that whole grain diets including oats reduced the risk of cardiovascular disease or lower blood cholesterol or blood pressure. However, the study authors acknowledged the small sample sizes and relatively short durations of the interventions (four months or less). These studies included a range of whole grain foods in addition to oats such as brown rice, whole wheat, barley, and rye. [3]
- In contrast, a meta-analysis of 18 studies that included mainly cohort studies found that the highest whole-grain intakes (including various types of whole grains in addition to oats) compared with the lowest intakes were significantly associated with a 21% reduced risk of heart disease. [4]
- A prospective cohort of 54,871 Danish adults ages 50–64 found that men and women with the highest quartile of total whole grain intake had a 25% and 27% lower risk of heart attack than individuals with intakes in the lowest quartile. Rye and oats, but not wheat, were associated with lower heart disease risk, especially in men. [5]
- A meta-analysis found that eating 3 grams of beta-glucan soluble fiber daily from whole oats modestly decreased blood cholesterol levels by about 12 points. [6]
Diabetes: Beta-glucan fiber may help to prevent sharp rises in blood sugar and insulin levels after eating a meal, and may benefit gut health as the fiber is broken down and fermented by intestinal bacteria. [7-9] Though a carbohydrate-rich food, minimally processed whole grain oats can be incorporated into a diabetic diet. The glycemic load of less processed oats like steel-cut is low to medium, while highly processed instant oats have a high glycemic load.
- A meta-analysis of 14 controlled trials and two observational studies following people with type 2 diabetes found that, compared with the control groups, oats intake (specified as “oats or oatmeal or oats-containing products”) significantly reduced levels of fasting blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c (a test that measures average blood glucose over the previous 2-3 months) particularly in those with a high baseline A1c. It also significantly reduced blood sugar and insulin rises after eating a meal. [7]
- A randomized controlled trial looked at the effects of a 30-day dietary intervention given to 298 adults with type 2 diabetes, with follow-up at one year. Two of the four intervention groups received either 50 grams or 100 grams daily of “whole grain oats” along with a healthful diet. The oats were equivalent in nutritional value to minimally processed oat groats. The other two groups had either no dietary change or followed a generally healthful low-fat high-fiber diet. Both oat intervention groups saw a significant reduction of blood glucose after meals compared with control groups, with the higher oat intake showing a greater reduction. The study also showed modest weight loss at one year in the 100-gram oat group. [8]
Weight Control: Beta-glucan fiber attracts water and increases the viscosity (or thickness) of digested food, which increases the volume of food in the gut. This slows down digestion and the rate that nutrients are absorbed, which in turn increases satiety. Short-chain fatty acids produced from bacteria that ferment beta-glucan fibers may also increase satiety through a chain reaction of events that regulate appetite hormones. [10] Although several randomized controlled trials have shown that intake of beta-glucan oat fiber can increase satiety, other studies have not consistently shown that intake of oats produces the desired outcome of significant weight loss. [7,8,10]
Digestive Health: Fiber contributes to bowel regularity and the prevention of constipation. It has the ability to increase the weight and water content of stool, making them easier to pass. [11] Cereal fibers, as found in wheat bran and oat bran, are considered more effective than fiber from fruits and vegetables. The breakdown and fermentation of beta-glucan oat fiber has also been reported to increase the diversity of gut microbiota [8]. This may in turn improve certain digestive issues such as diarrhea, constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome. However, more research is needed to evaluate the role of various microbiota on digestive conditions.

Make

Oatmeal: A breakfast favorite, cooked oats pair well with fruits, nuts, and seeds. Follow package directions for exact cooking times. Generally, less-processed oats such as steel-cut take 25-30 minutes to cook, whereas instant oats take 1-2 minutes.
Overnight Oats: A quick, easy no-cook solution for a nutrient-dense breakfast or snack. In a medium glass jar, add ½ cup old-fashioned or rolled oats (not instant), ½-1 cup liquid such as dairy milk, soy milk, or nut milk, and ½ cup of any chopped fruit (banana, melon, apple, grapes). Additional optional ingredients include a few tablespoons of Greek yogurt, 1-2 tablespoons of chia/flaxseeds, nuts, or any spices. Tightly screw on the lid and shake the jar vigorously until all ingredients are incorporated well. Refrigerate overnight or for at least four hours. The oats will soften and the mixture will thicken into a pudding-like texture.
Oat Flour: These are oats that have been ground to a flour-like consistency. Although it may be tempting to substitute oat flour for regular flour in baked recipes, keep in mind that oat flour lacks gluten, a crucial component that adds structure, moisture, and volume to a baked product; without it, cookies would crumble and breads would become dense and lack volume. However, oat flour can add chewiness to cookies and a boost of nutrients to breads. Substitute 25-30% of flour in a recipe with oat flour for best results.
Oat Risotto: Oats are also delicious in savory dishes. An example is replacing rice in risotto with whole oat groats or steel-cut oats. Typically, the oats are first toasted for a few minutes in hot oil with aromatics like shallots or diced onion. Then stock and/or water are added, 1 cup at a time, stirring well after each addition, until the oats are cooked (about 25 minutes).
Other Ideas:
- Add ½ cup dry old-fashioned oats to batter, such as for breads and cookies.
- Add 2-3 tablespoons of oat bran to any hot or cold cereal.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Did You Know?

Other rich sources of beta-glucan include barley and mushrooms.
Pure oats are gluten-free but most commercial brands are processed in facilities that also produce gluten-containing wheat, rye, and barley. Cross-contamination can also occur if oats are grown too close to wheat crops. If there is cross-contamination of gluten in an oat product, it is difficult to know exactly how much. The Food and Drug Administration allows the voluntary use of the regulated term “gluten-free” to refer to products that contain less than 20 parts per million (ppm) of gluten. Because the term is voluntary, some brands of oats may actually be gluten-free although not labeled as such. However, those who have celiac disease or a gluten sensitivity may wish to choose oats specifically labeled “gluten-free.”
Oats are sometimes used to soothe inflammatory skin conditions such as eczema, and are a popular ingredient in facial masks.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

References

Food and Drug Administration, HHS. Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Fiber From Certain Foods and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. Accessed 12/28/2017.
Bernstein AM, Titgemeier B, Kirkpatrick K, Golubic M, Roizen MF. Major cereal grain fibers and psyllium in relation to cardiovascular health. Nutrients. 2013 Apr 29;5(5):1471-87.
Kelly SA, Hartley L, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, Jones HM, Al‐Khudairy L, Clar C, Germanò R, Lunn HR, Frost G, Rees K. Whole grain cereals for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. The Cochrane Library. 2017 Jan 1.
Tang G, Wang D, Long J, Yang F, Si L. Meta-analysis of the association between whole grain intake and coronary heart disease risk. Am J Cardiol. 2015 Mar 1;115(5):625-9.
Helnæs A, Kyrø C, Andersen I, Lacoppidan S, Overvad K, Christensen J, Tjønneland A, Olsen A. Intake of whole grains is associated with lower risk of myocardial infarction: the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health Cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016 Feb 17;103(4):999-1007.
Tiwari U, Cummins E. Meta-analysis of the effect of β-glucan intake on blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Nutrition. 2011 Oct 1;27(10):1008-16.
Hou Q, Li Y, Li L, Cheng G, Sun X, Li S, Tian H. The metabolic effects of oats intake in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2015 Dec 10;7(12):10369-87.
Li X, Cai X, Ma X, Jing L, Gu J, Bao L, Li J, Xu M, Zhang Z, Li Y. Short-and long-term effects of wholegrain oat intake on weight management and glucolipid metabolism in overweight type-2 diabetics: a randomized control trial. Nutrients. 2016 Sep 7;8(9):549.
He LX, Zhao J, Huang YS, Li Y. The difference between oats and beta-glucan extract intake in the management of HbA1c, fasting glucose and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food funct. 2016;7(3):1413-28.
Rebello CJ, O’Neil CE, Greenway FL. Dietary fiber and satiety: the effects of oats on satiety. Nutrition reviews. 2015 Dec 31;74(2):131-47.
Slavin J. Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients. 2013 Apr 22;5(4):1417-35.

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Mushrooms & Health Benefits

September 12, 2022September 11, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

All varieties of mushrooms are low in calories and fat, and contain modest amounts of fiber and various nutrients. 71

Mushrooms & Health Benefits

An often under-appreciated food, mushrooms have been eaten and used as medicine for thousands of years. Traditional and folk medicine practitioners laud the bell-shaped fungi for their healing and cleansing properties. All varieties of mushrooms are low in calories and fat, and contain modest amounts of fiber and various nutrients. Perhaps the more interesting properties of mushrooms are their non-nutritive plant substances—polysaccharides, indoles, polyphenols, and carotenoids in which cell and animal studies have shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. [1] Mushrooms are also recognized by chefs for their ability to create savory rich flavors called umami, thanks to the presence of an amino acid called glutamate, which is also found in meats, fish, cheeses, and simmering soups.

Although considered a vegetable, mushrooms are neither a plant nor animal food. They are a type of fungus that contains a substance called ergosterol, similar in structure to cholesterol in animals. Ergosterol can be transformed into vitamin D with exposure to ultraviolet light. Mushrooms vary in appearance with more than 10,000 known types, but generally they are distinguished by a stem, fleshy rounded cap, and gills underneath the cap. China and the U.S. are among the top five producers of mushrooms worldwide.

Source Of

B vitamins (B2, B3, folate, B5)
Phosphorus
Vitamin D
Selenium
Copper
Potassium

Are mushrooms a good source of vitamin D?

All varieties of mushrooms are low in calories and fat, and contain modest amounts of fiber and various nutrients. — Fresh whole white button mushrooms, or agaricus, in a bowl on a rustic wooden counter ready to be cleaned and washed for dinner, overhead view

The quick answer is maybe. Because mushrooms sold in supermarkets are usually grown in dark, controlled environments indoors, they will contain little if any vitamin D. But some manufacturers expose mushrooms to ultraviolet (UV) light to increase their content of vitamin D, either by natural sunlight or a UV lamp. A substance in mushrooms called ergosterol then produces vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), a form found only found in plants. Vitamin D2 is also added to fortified foods and supplements. The other main form of vitamin D is D3 (cholecalciferol) found in animal foods (egg yolks, oily fish) and supplements. Both will effectively raise blood levels of vitamin D, though D3 may be absorbed slightly better and break down more slowly than D2. [2]

The amount of vitamin D mushrooms contain varies widely and depends on how long the mushrooms are exposed to UV light. Estimates show that fresh wild mushrooms like chanterelles and morels can contain up to 1200 IU of vitamin D per 3.5-ounce serving, whereas mushrooms grown in darkened conditions like white button, shiitake, and oyster contain less than 40 IU. [3] However, button mushrooms that are exposed to sunlight can produce up to 400 IU vitamin D per 3.5-ounce serving though the exact amount depends on factors related to their UV exposure such as the time of day, season, latitude, and duration. Mushrooms treated with UV lamps can produce even higher amounts of vitamin D. Even after harvesting, mushrooms can continue to produce vitamin D, whether exposed to UV light from the sun or a lamp.

Dried mushrooms also contain the vitamin. Some estimates show dried mushrooms to contain about 600 IU of vitamin D2 per 3.5 ounces if stored in dark, cool, dry conditions for up to 6 months (the vitamin may start to break down after that time). [3]

Humidity and cooking mushrooms in water do not appear to affect vitamin D content in mushrooms, but cooking them in fat (such as oils) can cause the vitamin to leach out because it is fat-soluble.

Mushrooms and Health

Edible mushrooms like maitake and shiitake have also been used as medicine throughout history. Other mushrooms that are too tough to eat have been used solely for medicinal purposes such as reishi. Plant chemicals and components in mushrooms may exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects, but the exact mechanism is still unclear and an area of active research. [4] Animal and cell studies show that mushrooms can stimulate the activity of immune cells, macrophages, and free radicals that can stop the growth and spread of tumor cells and cause existing tumor cells to die. [5] Various polysaccharides in mushrooms including beta-glucans are believed to exert these cancer-fighting properties. [4,6]

Cognition

Two epidemiological studies found that higher mushroom intake had protective effects on the brain in older adults. [7, 8] Components in mushrooms may prevent the growth of amyloid proteins related to dementia, and act as antioxidants, specifically an amino acid called ergothioneine. A 2019 cross-sectional study of 663 Chinese men and women 60 years of age and older found that those who ate more than 2 servings of mushrooms per week (1 serving = 3/4 cup cooked) compared with those who ate less than 1 serving per week had a reduced risk of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). [9] After adjusting for potential confounders (factors linked with cognitive decline) such as body mass index, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and dietary intake of meat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts, the group with the higher intake of mushrooms had a 52% lower risk of developing MCI than the low intake group. This cross-sectional study only provided a snapshot of the prevalence of MCI in the participants at one point in time; the authors noted that a direct effect of mushrooms on cognition could not be made by this study. For example, it is possible that people who developed MCI had changed their diet that included less mushrooms. Epidemiological studies following people over time, measuring biomarkers for ergothioneine and other mushrooms substances, and randomized clinical trials that administer ergothioneine or other mushroom phytonutrients will help to shed light on its potential effect on cognition.

Gut Health

Mushrooms contain polysaccharides that act as a prebiotic, or food for beneficial gut bacteria. Studies show that these polysaccharides stimulate the growth and survival of beneficial strains like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. They remain undigested and therefore can reach the colon where these bacteria live. [10, 11]

Cardiometabolic Diseases and Cancer

In two large prospective cohort studies, mushroom consumption was not significantly associated with risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, [12] or cancer. [13] However, low levels of mushroom consumption in the populations may have limited the ability of these studies to detect significant associations. In addition, mushroom consumption was measured once at baseline and consumption patterns may have changed over time. Moreover, different types of mushrooms were not assessed in the Food Frequency Questionnaires.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Purchase

There are thousands of varieties of mushrooms, with different colors, shapes, and sizes. Because some wild mushrooms can cause stomach upset or allergic reactions, or may even be poisonous, your safest bet is to stick to supermarket varieties and avoid picking and eating raw wild mushrooms on your own.

The common button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is the most common in the U.S. It is the mildest-tasting mushroom and can be eaten raw or cooked.

Other types of mushrooms available for sale include:

Chanterelle: the cap is a wavy golden trumpet-like shape
Cremini (baby bella): a young Portobello mushroom that is dark and firm
Enoki: long, thin white stems with small white caps that are eaten raw or cooked
Maitake: a head that resembles flowering leaves
Morel: the cap is a spongy dimpled oblong shape
Oyster: a fan-shaped delicate cap
Porcini: a reddish-brown rounded cap with a thick cylindrical stem
Portobello: a large brown thick cap with rich juicy flavor that work well as a meat substitute
Shiitake: a dark brown umbrella cap with a thin cream-colored stem

Mushrooms that have been specially treated with UV light may carry a label on the front of the package that says “UV-treated” or “rich in vitamin D,” or display the exact amount of vitamin D they contain.

Is a truffle a mushroom?

Truffles grow underground attached to the roots of trees, whereas mushrooms grow above ground.

This pricey delicacy typically reserved for restaurant dishes is a type of fungus that is generally classified as a mushroom, though there are slight differences. Truffles grow underground attached to the roots of trees, whereas mushrooms grow above ground. They don’t have a stem, which is distinctive of other mushrooms, and look like a small brown lumpy potato. Truffles can have a strong flavor and aroma in contrast to the mild earthy or even neutral flavor of mushrooms. Common mushrooms grow year round, while truffles have a short growing season. Some truffles are famously expensive, at thousands of dollars per pound, such as the white truffle that grows about 3 months of the year and is difficult to find underground. Because of their rarity and top price, they may be served sparingly as fresh shavings or infused into sauces, and are often paired with rich cheese and meat dishes.

Storage

Select mushrooms with firm whole caps with an even texture. They should be refrigerated until use, but ideally within one week. Do not wash or clean them until just before using. Storing in a brown paper bag with the top open will help to absorb moisture and keep them from spoiling, as opposed to tight plastic wrapping that traps moisture. Because they are about 80-90% water, mushrooms do not freeze well, becoming mushy when defrosted.

Make

Mushrooms are delicate and should be cleaned gently. Either place them under gentle running water to release any dirt or brush dirt off with a dampened paper towel.

Cooking mushrooms in high-temperature water such as boiling and microwaving may cause its water-soluble nutrients (B vitamins, potassium) to escape in the cooking water. Sautéing quickly over high heat, or simmering over low heat, such as in soups, are ideal cooking methods for preserving nutrients.

Add chopped mushrooms into salads, omelets, scrambled eggs, stir-fries, pasta sauces, chilis, or soups.
Sauté mushrooms in olive oil and add to cooked pasta or whole grains.
Grill large portobello mushroom caps. Remove the stems and gills if desired. Marinate the mushrooms for 10 minutes in a favorite sauce. Grill for about 3 minutes each side until they caramelize.
Mushrooms make a great replacement for meat because of their umami flavor. Replace about a quarter to a half of the meat in a recipe with chopped mushrooms.

What is Umami?

Umami is considered the fifth basic taste, alongside sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. It is a savory flavor created by glutamates in food, most commonly found in meat, fish, sauces, soups, cooked, tomatoes, cheeses, soy sauce, and fermented foods. Mushrooms are one of the few plants foods that have strong umami flavor. Umami flavors can enhance low-sodium foods, reducing the need for added salt. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a processed form of glutamate and flavor enhancer in soups, Chinese foods, and processed meats. Some people describe temporary symptoms after eating foods high in MSG including headaches, flushing, and even chest pain. However, there is no definitive research to show that MSG causes these symptoms. The best treatment if one consistently experiences these symptoms is to avoid foods with MSG.

Did You Know?

Not all mushrooms are edible. Wild mushrooms with white gills or a ring around the stem are considered poisonous. Some other inedible mushrooms look like edible mushrooms, so unless one is trained in recognizing wild mushrooms, it’s best to find your mushrooms at the market!

More recipe ideas and serving suggestions featuring mushrooms:

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

References

Zhang JJ, Li Y, Zhou T, Xu DP, Zhang P, Li S, Li HB. Bioactivities and health benefits of mushrooms mainly from China. Molecules. 2016 Jul;21(7):938.
Wilson LR, Tripkovic L, Hart KH, Lanham-New SA. Vitamin D deficiency as a public health issue: using vitamin D 2 or vitamin D 3 in future fortification strategies. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2017 Aug;76(3):392-9.
Cardwell G, Bornman JF, James AP, Black LJ. A review of mushrooms as a potential source of dietary vitamin D. Nutrients. 2018 Oct;10(10):1498. *Disclosure: G.C. worked as a consultant to the Australian mushroom industry prior to Sept 2017.
Wasser S. Medicinal mushroom science: Current perspectives, advances, evidences, and challenges. Biomedical journal. 2014 Nov 1;37(6).
Blagodatski A, Yatsunskaya M, Mikhailova V, Tiasto V, Kagansky A, Katanaev VL. Medicinal mushrooms as an attractive new source of natural compounds for future cancer therapy. Oncotarget. 2018 Jun 26;9(49):29259.
Huang X, Nie S. The structure of mushroom polysaccharides and their beneficial role in health. Food & function. 2015;6(10):3205-17.
Nurk E, Refsum H, Drevon CA, Tell GS, Nygaard HA, Engedal K, Smith AD. Cognitive performance among the elderly in relation to the intake of plant foods. The Hordaland Health Study. British journal of nutrition. 2010 Oct;104(8):1190-201.
Zhang S, Tomata Y, Sugiyama K, Sugawara Y, Tsuji I. Mushroom consumption and incident dementia in elderly Japanese: The Ohsaki Cohort 2006 Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2017 Jul;65(7):1462-9.
Feng L, Cheah IK, Ng MM, Li J, Chan SM, Lim SL, Mahendran R, Kua EH, Halliwell B. The association between mushroom consumption and mild cognitive impairment: a community-based cross-sectional study in Singapore. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease. 2019 Jan 1;68(1):197-203.
Nowak R, Nowacka-Jechalke N, Juda M, Malm A. The preliminary study of prebiotic potential of Polish wild mushroom polysaccharides: the stimulation effect on Lactobacillus strains growth. European journal of nutrition. 2018 Jun 1;57(4):1511-21.
Chou WT, Sheih IC, Fang TJ. The applications of polysaccharides from various mushroom wastes as prebiotics in different systems. Journal of food science. 2013 Jul;78(7):M1041-8.
Lee DH, Yang M, Giovannucci EL, Sun Q, Chavarro JE. Mushroom consumption, biomarkers, and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study of US women and men. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2019 Sep 1;110(3):666-74.
Lee DH, Yang M, Keum N, Giovannucci EL, Sun Q, Chavarro JE. Mushroom consumption and risk of total and site-specific cancer in two large US prospective cohorts. Cancer Prevention Research. 2019 Aug 1;12(8):517-26.

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Legumes, Pulses and Health Benefits

September 9, 2022September 8, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Legumes-are-a-nutritious-staple-of-diets-around-the-world.-They-are-an-inexpensive-source-of-protein-vitamins-complex-carbohydrates

Legumes and Pulses & Health Benefits

The Fabaceae or Leguminosae (commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean) family is the third largest family of flowering plants, consisting of over 20,000 species. [1] Legumes are a nutritious staple of diets around the world. They are an inexpensive source of protein, vitamins, complex carbohydrates, and fiber.

Although used interchangeably, the terms “legumes,” “pulses,” and “beans” have distinct meanings. A legume is any plant from the Fabaceae family that includes its leaves, stems, and pods. A pulse is an edible seed from a legume plant. Pulses include beans, lentils, and peas. For example, a pea pod is a legume, but the pea inside the pod is the pulse. The entire legume plant is often used in agricultural applications (as cover crops, livestock feed, or fertilizers), while the seeds or pulses are typically on our dinner plates. Beans in their various forms (kidney, black, pinto, navy, chickpeas, etc.) are just one type of pulse.

Legumes are emphasized by the U.S. Dietary Guidelines (about 3 cups a week) and the DASH Eating Plan of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (4-5 half-cup servings a week). [2] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations declared the International Year of Pulses in 2016, focusing on the contribution of pulses to food production and nutritional diversity to help eradicate hunger and malnutrition. [3]

Source Of

Protein
Folate
Fiber (both insoluble and soluble)
Iron
Phosphorus
Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic and oleic acids

Legumes and Health

Legumes contain several components that, when eaten as part of a balanced plant-rich diet, may help prevent the development of various chronic diseases:

Cardiovascular disease

Several legume components may benefit heart health, including fiber, folate, and phytochemicals. Legumes are low in saturated fat and sodium in their whole, unprocessed form. Legumes’ fibers may significantly help lower blood cholesterol even without weight changes and may prevent sharp rises in blood sugar, both of which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease. [4]

A meta-analysis of primarily observational studies found that eating legumes about four times weekly was associated with a 14% reduced risk of coronary artery disease. [4]
Another meta-analysis of 11 clinical trials that looked at the effect of pulses on two types of cholesterol—HDL and LDL—found that intakes of pulses lowered fasting total cholesterol by about 7% and LDL (“bad”) cholesterol by 6%. In contrast, it raised HDL (“good”) cholesterol by 2.6%. The authors noted that soluble fiber, oligosaccharides (a type of carbohydrate), and phytochemicals in pulses likely contributed to this effect. [5]
A cohort study looking at legumes and heart health followed 9,632 men and women free of cardiovascular disease at baseline from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. It found that after 19 years, people who ate legumes four times a week had a 22% lower risk of heart disease and 11% lower risk of cardiovascular diseases (stroke, heart attack) than those who ate less than legumes once weekly.[6]
A meta-analysis of 36 randomized controlled trials involving 1,803 participants found that substituting plant-based proteins like legumes for red meat reduced risk factors for cardiovascular disease (blood cholesterol, triglycerides, blood pressure). [7]

Cancer

According to animal and cell studies, legumes’ fiber, phytochemical, and mineral content may have anti-cancer effects. For example, nutrients in legumes such as zinc have been associated with improved immune function and decreased oxidative stress on cells. Selenium and phytic acid have been found to inhibit the growth of tumors in mice. However, there is less conclusive evidence from human studies on legumes and cancer protection.

Still, the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and the American Institute for Cancer Research, in their report, Food, Nutrition and Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective, included a public health goal of including pulses in most meals to help meet its recommendation of at least 30 grams of dietary fiber daily, as a high-fiber diet has been associated with a reduced risk of certain cancers like colorectal. [8] However, the WCRF states explicitly that “foods containing dietary fiber decrease the risk of colorectal cancer,” suggesting that there may be other components in high-fiber foods that could be affecting cancer development, such as supporting the production of a short-chain fatty acid called butyrate (see “digestive health” section for further information).

Digestive Health

Legumes contain fiber, resistant starches, and non-digestible carbohydrates like oligosaccharides. Resistant Starch, sometimes called slowly digestible Starch, is not digested and enters the colon. It works similarly to fiber by promoting bulky stool and acting as a prebiotic food for beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria. [9] As these bacteria break down and ferment resistant starches and oligosaccharides, they create gas, which causes bloating and abdominal cramping in some people. Soaking dried beans for at least three hours and cooking them may help decrease this side effect. In the long run, however, these beneficial bacteria support normal bowel function and may reduce levels of cancer-causing compounds. [9] During fermentation, the bacteria also create a short-chain fatty acid called butyrate that may be associated with preventing colorectal cancer. [10]

Diabetes

Legumes have a low glycemic index, are high in fiber, and contain slow-digesting resistant Starch—all of which may benefit the prevention of diabetes. Despite these beneficial components, research results have been mixed, and there is no definitive answer that legumes help prevent type 2 diabetes or lower blood glucose. The limited number of small randomized controlled trials have not produced consistent results showing a benefit. Extensive cohort studies have also not been conclusive:

A cohort study of 35,988 older women from the U.S. free of diabetes at baseline found no significant association with diabetes risk when comparing those who ate the most beans with those consuming the least. [11]
Another cohort study of 64,277 middle-aged women in China without diabetes at baseline found that after 4.5 years, those who ate the most legumes (about 1/3 cup daily) compared with the least had a 38% reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. [12] It is noted that this study specified legumes as including soybeans and peanuts along with pulses, whereas the prior U.S. study did not.

Obesity

Legumes contain dietary components that may help promote weight loss. Their protein and soluble/insoluble fiber content may increase feelings of fullness and modestly increase calorie expenditure through thermogenesis. [2] Only about 40% of the fiber in a food is broken down during digestion, which reduces total calorie intake. [13] The thread takes longer to chew, slowing one’s eating pace and digestion in the stomach, which may lead to feelings of fullness.

A study using data on 8,229 adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey found that people who ate beans had a lower body weight and smaller waist size than people who did not eat beans. [13]. The bean eaters had a 23% and 22% lower risk of increased waist size and obesity, respectively.

What about products made from legumes?

Because of their texture, flavor, and nutritional profile, legumes are found in numerous products throughout the supermarket. While these can include classic options such as tofu, peanut butter, and hummus, legumes and their components are also crucial ingredients in many plant-based meat alternatives. Because this product mix relies on varying degrees of processing, consumers should look for added sodium, sugar, saturated fat from tropical oils, or other additives. The Nutrition Facts Label and ingredients list can help decide when to include a portion of processed food in the diet.

For Your Health and The Planet’s Health

Food production places an enormous demand upon our natural resources, as agriculture significantly contributes to climate change, deforestation, species extinction, and freshwater depletion and contamination. However, different foods also affect the environment, varying impacts on human health. Generally, the production of plant-based foods tends to have lower greenhouse gas emissions and use less land and water than producing animal-based foods. In transitioning towards healthy diets from sustainable food systems—especially with our global population slated to reach 10 billion by 2050—legumes are slated to play a critical role. The 2019 EAT-Lancet report that outlines a “planetary health diet” recommends 50 grams of legumes (about ¼ cup) in the daily diet. [14]

Legumes have a range of characteristics that make them a relatively sustainable crop. For example, legumes release up to seven times less greenhouse gas emissions per area compared to other crops and can sequester carbon in soils. They can also make their nitrogen from the atmosphere, thus reducing the application of nitrogen fertilizers. This leaves nitrogen-rich residues in the ground after harvesting, a benefit for the next crop planted in its place. [1] According to the FAO, drought-resistant species of legumes can be of particular use to dry environments where food security is often a challenge. They can also help minimize food waste since pulses can be dried and stored for relatively long periods without losing their nutritional value. [15]

Bottom Line

Despite their wide variety, legumes share many expected benefits. They are relatively sustainable and inexpensive, a low glycemic index food, rich in protein and fiber, and satiating. Because of their “meaty” texture, legumes can even stand in for animal-based protein foods in various preparations. Additionally, their generally neutral flavor makes them versatile to blend well with other ingredients and pair easily with multiple seasonings.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Chickpeas Health Nutritious

Chickpeas and all pulses contain several components that, when eaten as part of a balanced plant-rich diet, may help prevent the development of various chronic diseases [1-7]

Diabetes: Both dried and canned chickpeas have a low glycemic index and low glycemic load and contain amylose, a resistant starch that digests slowly. These factors help prevent sudden surges in blood sugar and insulin levels, improving overall blood sugar control in people with type 2 diabetes. [1-3,5-7]
Gut Flora: Chickpeas contain a soluble fiber called raffinose, a type of oligosaccharide fermented in the colon by beneficial bacteria called Bifidobacterium. As bacteria break down this fiber, a short-chain fatty acid called butyrate is produced. Butyrate plays a role in reducing inflammation in the cell wall of the colon, promoting regularity in the intestines, and possibly preventing colorectal cancer by promoting cell apoptosis (death). [1,3,4]
Heart Disease: Chickpeas contain a plant sterol called sitosterol that is structurally similar to cholesterol in the body. It interferes with the body’s cholesterol absorption and can help lower blood cholesterol levels. Chickpeas’ fiber and unsaturated fats may also favorably affect blood lipid levels. [1-3,5-7]
Obesity: High-fiber foods can help to promote a feeling of fullness and satiety by delaying digestion and adding bulk to meals. The satiating effect of chickpeas’ high fiber and protein content may help with weight management. [1-3,5,7]

Make

Fresh chickpeas in their pods

Chickpeas are widely available dried or canned. Occasionally you may find young, fresh green chickpeas in their pods at farmers’ markets.

Dried: Sort through the beans to check for and remove small stones or debris, then place in a strainer and rinse well. To speed up the cooking time, dry beans may be presoaked by covering them with water and allowing them to sit for at least 3 hours or overnight. Some people who feel bloated after eating beans may find that presoaked beans are better tolerated, reducing the number of oligosaccharides responsible for the uncomfortable side effects.
- Cook: For 1 cup of dry garbanzo beans, add 3 cups of water or broth. Add to pan and bring to a boil. When boiling, reduce the heat to low-medium and simmer for 60-90 minutes or until desired tenderness. Add more water if the beans do not reach desired love, and additional cook time is needed. Using presoaked beans will reduce the cooking time by 25%.
Canned: Place in a strainer, drain, and rinse well. This will remove about 40% of the sodium, or you can purchase low-sodium or no-salt-added canned versions. These do not need additional cooking but hold up well when added to cooked or baked dishes.

Serve

Chickpeas have a nutty buttery flavor and creamy texture that can enhance many recipes. There are various ways to incorporate cooked chickpeas:

Add to salads, soups, and stews.
Use a food processor or blender to grind into a paste and add to veggie burgers or meatless meatballs.
Season and roast for a tasty snack.
Blend with tahini, garlic, olive oil, and lemon juice to make a hummus spread.
Mash and use in baking as a replacement for flour.

Crunchy roasted chickpeas

More recipe ideas and serving suggestions featuring chickpeas:

Did You Know?

Roasted and ground chickpeas have been a caffeine-free alternative to coffee for centuries. The beverage is also available as ready-to-brew commercial brands in some grocery stores.
Don’t throw out chickpea liquid from canned beans or from cooking the bean! It is called aquafaba, a thick liquid containing a mix of starch and trace amounts of protein, with emulsifying, binding, and thickening properties. It works as a flavorless, odorless egg replacer in recipes: 1 tablespoon of aquafaba = 1 egg yolk, two tablespoons = one egg white, and three tablespoons = 1 whole egg. It can also be whipped to replace the eggs in meringues or mayonnaise.
Unlike many canned vegetables, canned chickpeas retain much nutritional value and are comparable to cooked dried versions.

References

Lentils

Lentils receive their scientific name, Lens culinaris, from their curved lens-shaped seed. They are a type of legume that is native to Western Asia and North America. Lentils are one of the earliest domesticated crops, seen in the diets of ancient Rome and Egypt. Many countries enjoy lentils as a dietary staple, offering an earthy, mild, nutty flavor that works well in various recipes. Canada leads the world’s production of lentils, followed by India.

Source Of

Lentils and health

Lentils are low in sodium and saturated fat and high in potassium, fiber, folate, and plant chemicals called polyphenols that have antioxidant activity. [1] These nutritional properties have led researchers to study their effects on chronic diseases. Lentils also contain slow-digesting resistant Starch that delays the absorption of carbohydrates with blood sugar-lowering effects and is a source of prebiotics that feeds gut flora to help prevent digestive diseases. [1] Animal studies have shown that lentils can lower blood pressure, cholesterol, and glucose. [1,2] Human studies have found that lentils may improve cholesterol levels in people with diabetes and protect against breast cancer in women. [3,4] Learn more about health-related research on the broader category of legumes.

Purchase

The most common types of lentils available in the U.S. are green, brown, black, red, yellow, and orange lentils. These categories are specific varieties like the green Puy (lentils du Puy), French lentils, or the black Beluga lentils. They may be sold as whole lentils or split with the husks removed. Whole lentils with intact husks take longer to cook and retain their shape; split lentils without husks cook very quickly and break down into a puree. These differences in texture will determine in which recipes they may be used. Lentils are available dried or canned.

Storage

Dried lentils are kept in a tightly sealed container in a dark, dry, excellent location for one year. After cooking, lentils will keep for one week in the refrigerator or up to three months in the freezer.

Make

Before cooking, place the lentils in a strainer and sort through them to check for and remove small stones or debris. Then rinse well.
Pre-soaking is not necessary as lentils cook quickly.
Combine 3 cups of liquid (water, stock) with 1 cup of clean, dry lentils in a medium pot. Bring water to a boil, cover the pan and reduce heat to medium to simmer. Cook until lentils are tender, about 20-30 minutes for whole lentils (typically black, green, brown) and 10-15 minutes for split lentils (generally yellow, red, orange). The total time can be adjusted based on the desired texture. If you wish for firmer whole lentils for salads, reduce the cooking time; if you prefer a softer mushier texture using split lentils, add more time.
Split red lentils cook quickly and can break down into a thick, pureed texture. They are best used to thicken soups and stews. Whole green and black lentils retain their shape and are an excellent addition to salads and whole grains; they may also be seasoned and served on their own.
Canned or vacuum-packed lentils are pre-cooked and ready to add to recipes. Rinse well before using it to reduce the sodium content.
Sprouted lentils are eaten raw and offer a different crunchy texture, which some people find easier to digest.

Serve

Lentils are highly versatile. They have a rich, earthy texture and will give any dish a boost of fiber and nutrients. They can add thickness and bulk to a recipe. Because of their hearty texture and protein content, they are sometimes used as an alternative to meat. Here are a few ways to incorporate cooked lentils:

Toss into salads or cooked whole grains, or fold into an omelet mixture before cooking.
Make a pasta sauce thicker and heartier by adding lentils.
Substitute cooked yellow or red lentils for chickpeas in a hummus recipe.
Reduce the meat mixture in a recipe, such as for chilis, stews, taco, and pepper fillings, and replace that amount with lentils to add more bulk and nutrients.
Use a food processor or blender to grind lentils into a paste and stir them into a veggie burger mixture or meatless meatballs.
Quick lentil “meat” loaf: Sauté 2 diced small onions and two minced cloves of garlic in 3 tablespoons hot olive oil until softened. Mash 3 ½ cups cooked green or brown lentils (about 1 ½ cups dry) in a large bowl. Stir in the cooked onions/garlic, 2 cups cooked brown rice or millet, and one tablespoon Italian seasoning and mix well. Press mixture into a loaf pan. Brush the top with one tablespoon of olive oil, and then tomato paste if desired—Bake at 350 F for one hour.
Puree 1/2 cup of lentils with two tablespoons of water. In recipes for baked goods like brownies and muffins, substitute half of the fat with 1/2 cup pureed lentils.

French style lentils

More recipe ideas and serving suggestions featuring lentils:

Did You Know?

In India, dried split lentils are dal or dahl, often cooked in a soup or stew and served with rice, chapati, or naan bread.
Undercooked lentils are challenging to digest and may cause stomach upset.

References

Soy

Soy is a unique food that is widely studied for its estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects on the body. Studies may seem to present conflicting conclusions about soy, but this is largely due to the wide variation in how soy is studied. Results of recent population studies suggest that soy has either a beneficial or neutral effect on various health conditions. Soy is a nutrient-dense source of protein that can safely be consumed several times a week, and probably more often, and is likely to provide health benefits—especially when eaten as an alternative to red and processed meat.

Soy is exalted as a health food by some, with claims of taming hot flashes, warding off osteoporosis, and protecting against hormonal cancers like breast and prostate.

At the same time, soy is shunned by others for fear that it may cause breast cancer, thyroid problems, and dementia, though these claims have not been substantiated.

Whether published in a popular press article or a well-designed clinical study, some debate about soy remains. As a species within the legume family, nutrition scientists often label soy as a food with potential for significant health benefits. However, due to contrary research that suggests possible negative effects of soy in certain situations, there has been a hesitancy to wholeheartedly promote soy.

Part of the uncertainty is due to the intricacy of soy’s effects on the body. Soy is unique in that it contains a high concentration of isoflavones, a type of plant estrogen (phytoestrogen) that is similar in function to human estrogen but with much weaker effects. Soy isoflavones can bind to estrogen receptors in the body and cause either weak estrogenic or anti-estrogenic activity. The two major soy isoflavones are called genistein and daidzein. Soy isoflavones and soy protein appear to have different actions in the body based on the following factors:

Type of study Is it being examined in a study with animals or humans? Soy may be metabolized differently in animals, so the outcomes of animal studies may not be applicable to humans.
Hormone levels Because soy can have estrogenic properties, its effects can vary depending on the existing level of hormones in the body. Premenopausal women have much higher circulating levels of estradiol—the major form of estrogen in the human body—than postmenopausal women. In this context soy may act like an anti-estrogen, but among postmenopausal women soy may act more like an estrogen. Also, women with breast cancer are classified into hormone type—either hormone positive (ER+/PR+) or hormone negative (ER-/PR-) breast cancer—and these tumors respond differently to estrogens.
Type of soy What type of soy is being studied: Whole soy foods such as tofu and soybeans, processed versions like soy protein powders, or soy-based veggie burgers? Fermented or unfermented soy foods? If supplements are used, do they contain isoflavones or soy protein?

Thus, there are many factors that make it difficult to construct blanket statements about the health effects of soy.

Aside from their isoflavone content, soy foods are rich in nutrients including B vitamins, fiber, potassium, magnesium, and high-quality protein. Unlike some plant proteins, soy protein is considered a complete protein, containing all nine essential amino acids that the body cannot make which must be obtained from the diet. Soy foods are also classified as fermented or unfermented (see table with examples, below). Fermented means that the soy food has been cultured with beneficial bacteria, yeast, or mold. Some believe that fermenting soy improves its digestibility and absorption in the body, as this process partially breaks down soy’s sugar and protein molecules.

Heart Disease

Soy protein took center stage after research showed that it might lower levels of harmful cholesterol. A 1995 meta-analysis of 38 controlled clinical trials showed that eating approximately 50 grams of soy protein a day (no small amount as this translates to 1½ pounds of tofu or eight 8-ounce glasses of soy milk!) in place of animal protein reduced harmful LDL cholesterol by 12.9 percent. [1] Such reductions, if sustained over time, could mean a greater than 20% lower risk of heart attack, stroke, or other forms of cardiovascular disease. In response to this finding, in 1999 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allowed companies to claim that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that also contain soy “may reduce the risk of heart disease.” [2]

However, a number of studies since have tempered that finding. [3] According to a comprehensive update of soy research by the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association (AHA) published in 2000, eating 50 grams of soy per day lowered LDL by only about 3%. [3] In October 2017, after review of additional scientific studies since the health claim was authorized, the FDA proposed a rule to revoke the claim because numerous studies presented inconsistent findings on the relationship between soy protein and heart disease. [4] Some of these inconsistencies may have resulted because soy was compared with a variety of alternative foods.

Even though soy protein may have only a small direct effect on cholesterol, soy may still benefit the heart in other ways. An epidemiological study following three large cohorts of American men and women who did not have cardiovascular disease at the start of the study found that those who ate the highest amounts of tofu and isoflavones from soy foods, compared with those who ate the least, had an 18% and 13% lower risk, respectively, of developing heart disease. [5] The benefit of tofu was stronger in premenopausal women and postmenopausal women not using hormone therapy.

Soy foods are generally good for the heart and blood vessels because they provide polyunsaturated fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are low in saturated fat. Replacing red meat with plant proteins including soy foods, beans, and nuts was associated with a 14% lower risk of heart disease, as found in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, a large long-term epidemiological study of more than 43,000 men. [6] Another large cohort of more than 500,000 Chinese adults with no previous cardiovascular disease found that those with the highest intakes of soy (4+ days a week) compared with those who never ate soy had a 25% lower risk of deaths from heart attack. [7]

Hot Flashes

Hormone replacement therapy has traditionally been used as an effective treatment for hot flashes and other unpleasant symptoms that accompany menopause, but its long-term use has raised concerns of an increased risk of some diseases including breast cancer and stroke. Soy has been a popular alternative treatment but not clearly supported by research; in theory the potential estrogenic effects of soy isoflavones could help to tame hot flashes by giving an estrogen-like boost during a time of dwindling estrogen levels.

In many Far East Asian countries where soy is eaten daily, women have lower rates of menopausal symptoms, although research is conflicting as to whether soy is a primary contributor. [8] Reports suggest that about 70–80% of U.S. women of menopausal and perimenopausal age experience hot flashes, in comparison with 10–20% of Far Eastern Asian women. [9] Further, the average blood concentration of the isoflavone genistein in Asian women who regularly consume soy is about 12 times higher than that of U.S. women. [9]

Yet several meta-analyses and carefully controlled clinical studies have not found strong evidence of a link. [10,11] An AHA review in 2006 concluded that it was unlikely that soy isoflavones exert enough estrogenic activity to have an important impact on hot flashes and other symptoms of menopause. [3] A JAMA review the same year found highly conflicting results with soy isoflavone extracts and stated that the overall evidence did not support its benefit in relieving hot flashes. [12]

In another review of 43 randomized controlled trials have examined the effects of phytoestrogens on hot flashes and night sweats in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Four trials found that extracts of 30 mg or greater of genistein consistently reduced the frequency of hot flashes. Other trials that used dietary soy or soy extracts suggested a reduced frequency and severity of hot flashes and night sweats when compared with placebo, but these trials were small with a possible strong placebo effect. [8] No adverse effects were noted from the soy treatments when followed for up to two years, but the authors did not feel overall there was strong and consistent evidence for a benefit of soy.

Another meta-analysis of 16 studies found that soy isoflavone supplements had a small and gradual effect in weakening menopausal hot flashes compared with estradiol (human estrogen). However, authors noted weaknesses in the analysis due to a small number of participants and high variability in study design. [9]

A more recent review of randomized trials found that some studies showed benefit of soy supplements on hot flashes; the therapeutic dosage ranged from 40-70 mg of isoflavones daily. [13] The authors also observed that the presence of equol (a protective substance made from the breakdown of isoflavones that only some women can produce) may be needed for isoflavones to effectively reduce hot flashes. Despite these results, the study authors did not offer a confident conclusion on the use of isoflavone supplements due to variations in study design and length; differences in the types and dosages of supplements; and the small sample sizes and high drop-out rates.

This area needs further research as questions remain about a possible benefit of soy. Results are conflicting, potentially due to variation in the types of soy preparations used, the quantities given, and for how long they are used.

Breast Cancer

Phytoestrogens don’t always mimic estrogen. In some tissues and in some people, they may block the action of estrogen. If soy’s estrogen-blocking action occurs in the breast, then eating soy could, in theory, reduce the risk of breast cancer because estrogen stimulates the growth and multiplication of breast and breast cancer cells. Studies so far have not provided a clear answer. Some have shown a benefit with soy consumption and breast cancer while others show no association. [14-17] It appears that the effects of soy may vary depending on menopausal status, the age at which soy is consumed, and type of breast cancer.

In animal and cell studies, high dosages of isoflavone or isolated soy protein extracts tend to stimulate breast cancer growth. [18,19] However, studies that observe people consuming soy foods over time show either a protective or neutral effect. Women from Asian countries appear to receive greater protective benefit from breast cancer with high soy intakes than American and European women, but this may simply be a difference in the amount of soy consumed. [20,21] Asian women may have higher levels of equol, a substance metabolized from the isoflavone daidzein by bacterial flora in the intestines. [22] Equol is believed to block potentially negative effects of human estrogen, but not all women possess the bacteria needed to create equol. [23] It is estimated that 30-50% of all humans are able to produce equol. [24] Eating soy foods starting at an early age (such as those found in many traditional Far East Asian diets) may be why women from some countries find greater benefit from soy foods than others. [19] However, the overall evidence on equol and cancer risk is unsettled. [25]

The Shanghai Women’s Health Study which followed 73,223 Chinese women for more than 7 years has been the largest and most detailed study of soy and breast cancer risk in a population with high soy consumption. [26] In this study, women who ate the most soy had a 59% lower risk of premenopausal breast cancer compared with those who ate the lowest amounts of soy. There was no association with postmenopausal breast cancer. Risk was 43% lower when soy was eaten during adolescence. Seven years later, the study authors published a follow-up analysis from the same cohort over 13 years to evaluate any association between soy foods and specific types of breast cancer defined by hormone receptors and by menopausal status (Estrogen [ER] +/-; Progesterone [PR] +/-). [27] Key highlights of the study:

A 22% lower risk of breast cancer when comparing the highest to lowest intakes of soy during adulthood.
A 28% lower risk of hormone positive (ER+, PR+) breast cancer in postmenopausal women.
A 54% lower risk of hormone negative (ER-, PR-) breast cancer in premenopausal women.
A 47% lower risk of premenopausal breast cancer when comparing high to low intakes of soy during adolescence and adulthood.

The Breast Cancer Family Registry was a prospective study following 6,235 women for 9 years diagnosed with breast cancer and living in the U.S. and Canada; intake of soy isoflavones was examined in relation to deaths from all causes. [28] Key highlights of the study:

Women who ate the highest amounts of soy isoflavones had a 21% lower risk of death compared with women with the lowest intakes.
Women who had ER-/PR- tumors and who were not receiving tamoxifen appeared to receive greatest benefit from the higher soy isoflavone intakes. However, isoflavone intake did not have a negative impact on women who were receiving tamoxifen or who had ER+/PR+ tumors.
Of all ethnicities, Asian American women tended to have the highest isoflavone intakes at about 6 mg daily, but this amount was still much lower than women living in Asian countries who eat closer to 46 mg daily. The authors noted that American women appeared to benefit from eating smaller amounts of soy.

Another prospective study followed 1,954 American women who were breast cancer survivors for six years. [29] Key highlights of the study:

Among postmenopausal women treated with tamoxifen, breast cancer recurrence was 60% lower when comparing the highest to the lowest daidzein (a specific type of soy isoflavone) No benefit was observed in women who had never used tamoxifen.
Recurrence was lower with increasing isoflavone intake among women with tumors that were ER+/PR+ but not ER-/PR-.
The most frequent sources of soy foods were not whole or minimally processed soy foods, but rather soy sauce, breakfast or diet drinks, tofu, diet bars, and soy protein isolate powder. The mean amount of isoflavones in the “high” category was about 19 mg daidzein and 27 mg genistein daily—a modest amount compared with Asian populations.
The authors concluded that soy isoflavones eaten at levels comparable to those in Asian populations may reduce the risk of cancer recurrence in women receiving tamoxifen therapy and does not appear to interfere with tamoxifen efficacy. However, the findings need to be confirmed because they were mainly in subgroups and could be due to chance.

Prospective studies also find soy foods to be protective from breast cancer deaths:

A cohort study of 1,460 Chinese women who were early-stage breast cancer survivors looked at dietary soy isoflavone intakes at baseline and after the breast cancer diagnosis, over a four-year period. [30] Higher soy intakes at baseline were associated with a 66% lower risk of deaths from any cause and a 64% lower risk of deaths from breast cancer. Higher soy intakes after diagnosis were associated with a 64% and 51% lower risk of deaths, from any cause and from breast cancer, respectively. The effects were greater in women who were premenopausal, had ER-/PR- tumors, and were taking tamoxifen.
A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies found a 12% reduction in breast cancer deaths with each 5 gram per day increase in soy protein intake. [31]

However, randomized controlled trials do not show an effect of soy foods on risk factors for breast cancer:

A review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) looked at isoflavone intakes ranging from 36-235 mg/day from food or supplements, taken from 1 month to 3 years, and breast cancer risk (as measured by breast density, changes in estrogen, and bloodwork) in healthy women. [32] The eighteen RCTs included both pre- and postmenopausal participants. No changes in breast cancer risk factors were found with isoflavone intakes. The authors noted limitations in their analysis in that there were wide variations in numbers of participants and the doses and duration of treatments, which made drawing firm conclusions difficult. Most importantly, these studies did not examine actual incidence of breast cancer.

Prostate Cancer

The incidence of prostate cancer is highest in Western countries and lowest in Asian countries, where soy foods are a regular part of the daily diet. In addition, observational studies have found an increased risk of prostate cancer in Chinese and Japanese men who move to Western countries and adopt a Western diet, but not in those who continue eating a traditional diet. [33] Soy isoflavones, specifically genistein and daidzein, are incorporated in prostate tissue and may act as weak estrogens and inhibit the development of prostate cancer. [34]

In a meta-analysis of 30 case-control and cohort studies from the U.S., Europe, Japan, and China, intakes of total soy foods, genistein, daidzein, and unfermented soy foods were associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer. [34]

A review of eight randomized controlled trials examined the effects of soy in men with or at risk of developing prostate cancer. Two of these studies found that isoflavone supplements or dietary soy protein reduced the risk of prostate cancer in men at high risk of developing the disease. However, none of the studies found a significant effect on prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels, a protein produced by the prostate gland that is used to detect prostate cancer. There were no adverse effects reported with soy supplementation. The authors discussed limitations of the review including the small number of participants, the short duration of studies (less than one year), and variation in dosages and types of soy given. [33]

A small randomized controlled trial in 2021 examined if soy protein supplements could slow down or reverse rising PSA levels in men who had previously been diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer, but who had a recurrence (as evidenced by rising PSA levels). The study found that even though the soy protein supplements increased blood levels of genistein, there was no effect of the supplement versus placebo on PSA levels when given for 6-8 months. [35]

Memory and Cognitive Function

Fermented soy foods commonly eaten in East Asian diets, including natto, tempeh, soy paste, and soy sauce, contain isoflavones and also bacteria that might have benefits for neurological disorders including cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Soy’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects may reduce the oxidative stresses associated with AD and PD. [36] Animal studies have suggest that soy compounds can weaken the progression of AD and prevent nerve cell death. They also find that soy can reduce inflammation and excess free radical production in the brain. AD has been associated with decreased levels of beneficial anti-inflammatory bacteria while harboring increased levels of proinflammatory bacteria. Fermented soy foods are produced with beneficial bacteria like Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, and Bacillus species that produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that regulates immune function and is being investigated for its protective effects on the brain.

Long-term low levels of estrogen the occur in menopausal women can reduce the number of estrogen receptors in the brain that are necessary for specific cognitive functions like memory and learning. [37] The soy isoflavone, daidzein, has been hypothesized to reduce decline in cognitive function or disease processes related to cognition and behavior. Thus, the possibility has been raised that eating soy foods might help prevent age-related memory loss or decline in thinking skills. [38]

Studies in humans, however, are not conclusive on soy’s effects on the brain:

Trials have yielded contradictory results, with some showing a benefit with soy isoflavone supplementation [39, 40] and others showing no benefit. [41-43] A review of 13 randomized controlled trials found that in about half of the studies, isoflavone supplementation had a beneficial effect on cognition in older men and women compared with controls, including improvements in attention, information-processing speed, and memory. However the results overall were mixed, with other studies not demonstrating a benefit. This may have been due to differing dosages given or the types of cognition tests used. [37]

One large study in men found a detrimental effect on cognitive function. In a prospective cohort study of more than 3,700 Japanese-American men living in Hawaii, those with the highest intakes of tofu (eaten almost daily) at midlife ages had greater cognitive impairment and brain atrophy in late life compared with men with the lowest tofu intakes (almost never eaten). [44] However, the actual number of men eating very high amounts of tofu was small, and past dietary information was collected by relying on the participants’ memory, some of whom may have already experienced cognitive decline. Because of this, the researchers stated that the findings were too preliminary to make recommendations. [45]

Thyroid

A meta-analysis of 18 randomized controlled trials found that although soy supplements raised thyroid stimulating hormone levels slightly, they did not have any effect on actual thyroid hormone production. [46] However, another study found that soy may interfere with thyroid hormone medication used to treat hypothyroidism. In one randomized double-blinded trial, 60 patients with a mild form of hypothyroidism (called subclinical hypothyroidism) were given low or high-dose phytoestrogen supplements (both also contained 30 grams of soy protein), the amount that might be obtained from a vegetarian diet. [47] Risk of developing clinical hypothyroidism was increased in the higher phytoestrogen group (no effect in the lower phytoestrogen group). The authors suggested that female vegetarian patients with subclinical hypothyroidism may need more careful monitoring of thyroid function. However, the authors also found a benefit on of reduced cardiovascular risk factors in the high phytoestrogen group, with a significant reduction in insulin resistance, inflammatory markers, and blood pressure. The effect of soy on thyroid function needs further examination.

References

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

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Papanikolaou Y, Fulgoni III VL. Bean consumption is associated with greater nutrient intake, reduced systolic blood pressure, lower body weight, and a smaller waist circumference in adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2008 Oct 1;27(5):569-76.
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, Garnett T, Tilman D, DeClerck F, Wood A, Jonell M. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet. 2019 Feb 2;393(10170):447-92.
FAO. Pulses Contribute to Food Security. 2016. http://www.fao.org/resources/infographics/infographics-details/en/c/414726. Accessed 8/2/2019.

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Kale and Health Benefits

September 8, 2022September 1, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Amazon shops, Some types of Kale offer white, lavender, blue, pink, or purple leaves used in floral bouquets.

Kale and Health Benefits & Why Should We Eat Kale?

Who knew a vegetable could be so cool? Although Kale has early roots in Greek and Roman culture, it remained a relatively minor commercial crop in the U.S. until recent years. This leafy green reached celebrity status around 2012, appearing on menus of Michelin star restaurants and becoming the choice ingredient of millennial food bloggers. Kale displaced other greens in salads, soups, and pesto and even showed up in the snack aisles as chips. Bon Appétitmagazine named 2012 the year of Kale, and on October 2, 2013, “National Kale Day” was launched in the U.S.

While curly and lacinato (also known as dinosaur or Tuscan) are generally the most common types of Kale, this vegetable comes in a wide variety—each with its unique colors, flavors, and textures: reborn is characterized by its deep purple, curly leaves; the blue-green and purple-red leaves of red Russian are known for being semi-sweet; the large green leaves of Siberian are icy weather-hardy; and Chinese Kale (Gai Lan), or “Chinese broccoli,” can be used in place of conventional broccoli in many dishes. Like broccoli, Kale is part of the Brassica oleracea family, including cabbage, cauliflower, bok choy, collard greens, and Brussels sprouts. Another more commonly recognized name for this vegetable family is Cruciferae or cruciferous, which refers to the shape of its projections that resemble a cross.

Source Of

Vitamin K
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Fiber
Manganese

Kale and Health

Cruciferous vegetables contain a plant chemical called glucosinolates, sulfur-containing compounds broken down into isothiocyanates and indole-3-carbinol after chewing, chopping, or cooking. In nature, glucosinolates act as a first-line defense for plants, protecting them from environmental and biological stresses (insects, fungi, drought conditions). These same substances are being researched for their proposed ability in humans to affect chronic conditions, including certain types of cancer and heart disease. Laboratory studies have shown that isothiocyanates and indole-3-carbinol inhibit inflammatory processes, prevent the growth and spread of tumor cells, and protect healthy cells. [1]

Observational studies that follow groups of people over time have sometimes suggested a protective effect of cruciferous vegetables on various cancers and cardiovascular health, but findings have not been consistent. [2-5] There are several possible reasons for this discrepancy. Using different study designs and methods and how the vegetables were cooked can change the bioavailability of isothiocyanates and their effects on the disease process. Genes may also play a role, as some people metabolize isothiocyanates more efficiently than others. [2] It is also possible that the amounts of cruciferous vegetables consumed by study populations have no critical impact on disease risks. More research with more extensive and longer-term studies is needed.

Regardless, Kale remains a highly nutritious food to include as part of a healthful dietary pattern. The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that adults eat various vegetables as part of a healthy meal plan, specifically at least 1½ cups of dark-green vegetables (including cruciferous) per week. [6]

People placed on blood thinners or anticoagulant medication to prevent blood clots are sometimes concerned about eating Kale and other green leafy vegetables that are rich in vitamin K. Vitamin K has a unique action that assists in clotting blood and can interfere with the effects of some blood thinners. However, people taking these medicines can safely eat these vegetables with a general precaution: eating a relatively consistent amount daily can allow one’s physician to adjust the dose of medication to balance the dietary intake of vitamin K and should not interfere with the anticoagulant medication’s effectiveness. For those who are on blood thinners or anticoagulant medications, it would be wise to check with their physician and possibly a clinical dietitian.

Another concern has been the goitrogen content of Kale and other cruciferous vegetables. Goitrogens are naturally occurring substances, sometimes “anti-nutrients,” that can block iodine from entering the thyroid gland. Iodine is a trace mineral needed by the body to make thyroid hormones that promote normal metabolism. A deficiency of iodine can lead to a condition called goiter or enlargement of the thyroid. Healthy persons who eat enough iodine and metabolize iodine normally will not be affected by dietary goitrogens. However, if one has an underactive thyroid called hypothyroidism and cannot produce enough thyroid hormone, eating excess goitrogens, especially in raw form, may further suppress thyroid activity and increase the risk of goiter. Those with hypothyroidism are at the most significant risk due to an iodine deficiency. A simple solution is to cook cruciferous vegetables, which deactivates the enzyme responsible for causing the goitrogenic effect. [7] Including a wide variety of vegetables, each week other than cruciferous will also protect against eating an excess amount of goitrogens.

Prepare

Available throughout much of the year, Kale is even tolerant to frost and cold weather. Low temperatures can cause Kale and other cruciferous vegetables to convert starch molecules into sugar, resulting in a sweeter, less bitter flavor.
Despite their tough and fibrous texture, kale stems are edible if cooked.
- Cut stems into small pieces and add to a stir-fry.
- Add diced stems to soups.
- Use to make vegetable stock.

Make

Kale has hearty leaves that withstand all types of cooking: boiling, braising, steaming, microwaving, and stir-frying. Kale can also be served raw, but the texture may be difficult to chew.

Sautéed Kale: This is one of the simplest, quickest methods to enjoy Kale. Add 2-3 tablespoons of olive oil to a saucepan on medium-high heat. Add two minced garlic cloves and cook for 1-2 minutes until softened. Add ½ cup water or broth and 1 – 1½ pounds kale (washed, stems and leaves coarsely chopped). Cover the pan and allow to cook for 5 minutes until Kale is softened and at desired texture. Season with herbs and spices as desired.
Kale Chips: Preheat oven to 350 degrees F. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper. Wash and dry one bunch of Kale thoroughly; use paper towels to blot if needed. Using your hands, pull leaves from their stems and rip them into small pieces, or you may use kitchen shears to cut leaves from the stem and into small pieces. Place into a large bowl and drizzle with oil. Massage oil evenly into kale pieces. Spread in a single layer on a baking sheet. Sprinkle herbs or spices as desired (try curry, cumin, garlic powder, onion powder, smoked paprika, nutritional yeast, or chili powder). Bake until the leaves shrink and the edges turn slightly brown about 15 minutes.
Kale Pesto: This recipe uses walnuts instead of the classic but more expensive and obscure ingredient of pine nuts. Place into a food processor: 2 cups kale leaves (stems removed), ¼ cup extra virgin olive oil, and two cloves garlic or ¼ teaspoon garlic powder; pulse until smooth. Add ¼ cup toasted walnuts, and beat until blended. Add ½ cup Parmesan cheese and pulse again until blended. Serve pesto mixed into pasta or whole grains, as a sauce for chicken or fish, as a pizza sauce, or spread on crackers.
Kale Salad: If using in a salad, there are two methods to soften the leaves, so they are easier to chew: 1) Place leaves in a bowl and drizzle with olive oil; massage the leaves for 1-2 minutes, or 2) Blanch leaves by placing in a pot of boiling water for 1 minute. Drain the leaves and place them into a bowl filled with ice water to stop the cooking quickly. Place leaves in a colander and gently press out excess water. Use paper towels to blot dry as needed. Blanching can also help to remove some of the bitter flavors from Kale.
Three-Green & Wheat Berry Salad with Mushroom “Bacon”.

More recipe ideas and serving suggestions featuring Kale:

Add kale leaves to soups, stews, and casseroles at the start of cooking.
Add a few handfuls of chopped Kale into a burger mixture before cooking.
Use large hardy lacinato kale leaves as a wrap to replace bread or tortillas.
Add a handful of kale leaves to smoothies.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Ten Delicious Types of Kale

Kale’s popularity has a lot to do with its nutrients. This leafy vegetable is known for its high concentration of beneficial plant compounds, including glucosinolates, flavonoids, carotenoids, and vitamin C (1).

That’s why you’ll see kale in products like superfood greens powders, green smoothies, and greens capsules, as well as dishes like salads and soups. It’s also straightforward to grow, which makes it a common choice for home gardeners.

You may only be familiar with one or two types of kale, but quite a few varieties exist. These differ in color, texture, leaf characteristics, and nutrient composition.

One study identified four wide varieties of kale (1):

Curled
American
Russian
Italian

Each of these four groups contains several sub-varieties. For example, the popular lacinato kale fits into the Italian group (1).

Here are ten delicious types of kale — many of which you’ve probably never heard of.

1. Winterbor Kale

Winterbor is a popular type of curly kale favorite of both commercial growers and home gardeners. It’s one of the most cold-hardy of all kales, which can withstand freezing temperatures.

Its curly leaves have a bluish-green color. It grows up to 3 feet (91 cm) tall.

Because of its thicker leaves, most people cook Winterborn kale, though you can also eat it raw.

Try it in soups, stir-fries, or smoothies. Its thick leaves also make fantastic kale chips.

2. Lacinato kale

Lacinato is a type of Italian kale known as dinosaur or Tuscan kale. It has dark green, blade-shaped leaves and can grow up to 3 feet (91 cm) tall (1).

This variety was initially grown in Tuscany and is an essential part of traditional Italian cuisine (1).

One study notes that lacinato is high in minerals under-consumed by most Americans, including magnesium and zinc (2).

It’s also an excellent source of fiber and vitamins C and K (3).

One study that compared eight kale cultivars found that Tuscan kale was highest in carotenoid compounds, including neoxanthin, lutein, and beta carotene, all of which have significant antioxidant activity (4).

Unlike some other types of kale, lacinato is tender, which makes it ideal to use raw in salads. You can add it to soups, frittatas, and other cooked dishes.

3. Red Russian kale

Red Russian is a type of Russian kale that’s sweet and tender.

Despite its name, Red Russian kale is slate green in color, with dark purplish stems. It’s cold-hardy, making it a popular variety for commercial and backyard farmers living in colder climates.

It’s known as “baby leaf” kale when its leaves are small and young — and it is most commonly eaten in this form. Baby leaf kale is particularly delicious raw in salads.

However, you can also eat it fully mature when the plant reaches 2–3 feet (61–91 cm) tall.

This is one of my favorite types of kale to grow on my backyard farm.

4. Scarlet kale

Scarlet kale boasts stunning purple leaves and stalks. Its color becomes more vibrant as temperatures drop.

A study that compared eight kale cultivars found that scarlet kale had the highest amount of total tocopherols and alpha-tocopherol (4).

Although commonly considered a single compound, vitamin E is eight separate compounds, including four tocopherols. Alpha-tocopherol is the form that best meets humans’ dietary needs (5).

Alpha-tocopherol functions as a powerful antioxidant, protecting your cells against damage from unstable molecules called free radicals. This compound may also support immune function and fight inflammation (6, 7).

Scarlet kale can grow up to 3 feet (91 cm) tall. You can eat its young, tender leaves raw in salads or cook its mature leaves to add to soups or grain dishes.

5. Redbor kale

If you want to add color to your plate, Redbor kale may become your new favorite green.

Reaching 2–3 feet (61–91 cm) in height, its deep reddish-purple leaves have a frilly texture. Interestingly, its color, texture, and flavor are enhanced by colder temperatures.

Its leaves are crisp when raw but become tender when cooked, making it a perfect addition to dishes like stews and kinds of pasta. You can also finely shred its leaves to create a bright and crisp raw salad.

6. Beira kale

Beira is a particular type of kale from Portugal. Also known as Portuguese cabbage or sea kale, Beira has wavy green leaves used in a traditional dish called Portuguese kale soup.

Moreover, you can peel Beira kale’s thick stems and eat them like celery stalks.

These plants need ample space to reach their mature height of about 2 feet (61 cm).

A study that compared eight types of kale determined that Beira was highest in plant compounds called indoles, which are glucosinate compounds concentrated in cruciferous vegetables (4).

Studies show that glucosinolates have potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and that adding glucosinolate-rich foods to your diet may help protect against chronic diseases (8).

7. Walking stick kale

Did you know that kale can grow up to 12 feet (3.6 meters) tall?

Walking stick kale is also known as walking cabbage, cow cabbage, Jersey cabbage, and tall jacks. This gigantic leafy green has been grown in Europe for hundreds of years (9).

Historically, stalks of walking stick kale were varnished and used as canes on the Isle of Jersey in Europe’s Channel Islands.

Most people prefer to eat the younger leaves because of their tender texture. The older, more rigid leaves make good animal feed.

8. Darkibor kale

Darkibor is a type of curly kale with dark green and tightly curled leaves. These productive plants reach up to 20 inches (51 cm) in height and thrive in various weather conditions.

Darkibor’s curly leaves make ideal kale chips or ingredients for stir-fries and soups. You can eat younger, tenderer raw in salads.

One study that tested consumer taste preference in 20 kale varieties found darker among the top 3 most preferred types (10, 11).

Another study noted that darker was highest among several kale varieties in prebiotic fibers called Raffinose-family oligosaccharides, which benefit digestive health by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and reducing pathogens in your gut (4, 12).

9. Thousandhead kale

Although technically a non-kale cabbage, this ancient crop originated in France and is too impressive to leave off this list (1).

This multi-branching leafy green is also known as “branching borecole.”

Thousandhead kale extends up to 6 feet (1.8 meters) in height and has massive leaves that can reach up to 3 feet (91 cm). The leaves are only slightly curled at the tips, which makes it easier for growers to spot pests like caterpillars.

You can sauté its larger leaves for soups or add the younger, tenderer leaves raw to salads.

10. Japanese flowering kale

Japanese flowering kale might be the best-looking kale on this list.

It has a rosette shape with a Fuschia center and green outer leaves. The leaves are frilly, which adds to its visual appeal.

In Japan, it’s known as habotai and is placed in gardens for a pop of color during cooler months.

Although it’s popularly used as ornamental kale, Japanese flowering kale can also be eaten. It’s said to have a sweet flavor that’s delicious, both raw and cooked. Growers also say it makes excellent kale chips.

The Bottom Line

Although you may only find a few types of kale at your local grocery store, plenty of varieties are grown worldwide, including Winterborn, scarlet, redbone, Beira, and ornamental varieties.

No matter which type you choose, rest assured that you’ll get plenty of nutrients from this exceptionally healthy vegetable, including fiber, calcium, and vitamins C and K (13, 14).

Try using kale in delicious and nutritious recipes like this White Bean and Kale Soup or this Sunflower Coated Crispy Kale Chips.

Can You Eat Raw Kale, and Should You?

Often labeled as a superfood, kale is one of the healthiest and most nutrient-dense foods you can eat.

This leafy green comes in various colors, shapes, and textures. It’s often eaten raw in salads and smoothies but can also be enjoyed steamed, sautéed, boiled, or baked.

Along with broccoli and Brussels sprouts, kale is a cruciferous vegetable with various potential health benefits.

However, raw kale also contains a compound called goitrin, which can affect thyroid function.

This article examines whether raw kale is safe to eat.

Highly Nutritious

Kale is a nutrient-dense food, as it’s low in calories and high in many essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.

For example, 1 cup (21 grams) of raw kale contains only seven calories. Still, it is an excellent source of vitamins A, C, and K. It’s also a good source of manganese, calcium, copper, potassium, magnesium, and several B vitamins (1).

This vegetable is likewise packed with antioxidants. These molecules help counteract oxidative damage caused by compounds called free radicals and may reduce your risk of conditions like heart disease, Alzheimer’s, and certain forms of cancer (2, 3).

Due to kale’s nutrient composition, eating it may offer several health benefits, including promoting eye and heart health and protecting against certain forms of cancer (4, 5, 6).

Cooking Affects the Nutritional Value

Raw kale has a bitterness that can be reduced by cooking it.

Still, studies have shown that cooking may reduce its content of nutrients, including antioxidants, vitamin C, and several minerals (2, 7).

One study evaluated the effects of five cooking methods on kale’s antioxidant and nutrient composition (7Trusted Source).

Compared with raw kale, all cooking methods significantly reduced total antioxidants and minerals, including calcium, potassium, iron, zinc, and magnesium (7).

While raw kale may boast the highest nutrient content, the study found that steaming retained the most antioxidants and minerals compared with other cooking methods (7).

As a result, for those who prefer cooked kale, steaming it for a short duration may be the best way to preserve its nutrient levels.

Raw Kale May be High in Goitrin

Raw kale may be more nutritious but also harm your thyroid function.

Kale, along with other cruciferous vegetables, contains a high amount of goitrogens, compounds that can interfere with thyroid function (8).

Specifically, raw kale contains a type of goitrogen called goiters.

There are some concerns about eating raw kale, as goiters can decrease the uptake of iodine, which is essential for producing thyroid hormones (8).

This is worrisome, as thyroid hormones help regulate your metabolism. As a result, thyroid dysfunction can lead to reduced energy levels, weight gain, cold sensitivity, and heart rate irregularities (9).

One review of goitrin concentrations in cruciferous vegetables found that only an excessive intake of 2.2 pounds (1 kg) of kale per day for several months significantly impaired thyroid function in otherwise healthy adults (8).

However, research has shown that a moderate intake of goitrin-rich vegetables, including kale, is likely safe for most individuals.

Additionally, animal and human studies indicate that eating broccoli and Brussels sprouts doesn’t significantly affect thyroid hormone levels or functioning, suggesting that moderate amounts may even be safe for those with thyroid issues (10, 11).

Furthermore, consuming cruciferous vegetables has only been associated with an increased risk of thyroid cancer in women with deficient iodine intake (12, 13).

Still, given that cooking vegetables deactivates the enzyme responsible for releasing goitrin, those with thyroid problems may benefit from cooking kale before eating it, as well as ensuring adequate intake of iodine from foods like seafood and dairy (14, 15).

The Bottom Line

Kale is one of the healthiest foods on the planet due to its high concentration of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.

Despite being high in goiters, research shows that a moderate intake of raw kale is unlikely to affect your thyroid health. Plus, raw kale may be more nutritious than cooked varieties.

To reduce your risk of potential side effects from goiters while reaping all the nutritional benefits that kale offers, consider incorporating both raw and cooked kale into your diet.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

Did You Know?

Before its dramatic rise to popularity in edible form, kale leaves were most commonly used in restaurants as decorative garnishes.
Some types of Kale offer white, lavender, blue, pink, or purple leaves used in floral bouquets.
Thomas Jefferson was a kale lover, growing and recording several varieties of Kale in his garden at Monticello in the early 1800s.

References

Fuentes F, Paredes-Gonzalez X, Kong AN. Dietary glucosinolates sulforaphane, phenethyl isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol/3, 3′-diindolylmethane: Antioxidative stress/inflammation, Nrf2, epigenetics/epigenomics and in vivo cancer chemopreventive efficacy. Curr Pharmacol Rep. 2015 Jun 1;1(3):179-96.
Tse G, Eslick GD. Cruciferous vegetables and risk of colorectal neoplasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Cancer. 2014 Jan 1;66(1):128-39.
Fujioka N, Fritz V, Upadhyaya P, Kassie F, Hecht SS. Research on cruciferous vegetables, indole‐3‐carbinol, and cancer prevention: A tribute to Lee W. Wattenberg. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016 Jun 1;60(6):1228-38.
Zhang X, Shu XO, Xiang YB, Yang G, Li H, Gao J, Cai H, Gao YT, Zheng W. Cruciferous vegetable consumption is associated with a reduced risk of total and cardiovascular disease mortality–. The Am J Clin Nutr. 2011 May 18;94(1):240-6.
Joshipura KJ, Hung HC, Li TY, Hu FB, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Willett WC. Intakes of fruits, vegetables and carbohydrate and the risk of CVD. Public Health Nutr. 2009 Jan;12(1):115-21.
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020, Eighth Edition. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/appendix-3/
Bajaj JK, Salwan P, Salwan S. Various possible toxicants involved in thyroid dysfunction: A Review. J Clin Diagn Res. 2016 Jan;10(1):FE01.

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Eggs and Health Benefits of Eating Eggs

August 25, 2022August 25, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Eggs are among the most nutritious foods on the planet. A whole egg contains all the nutrients required to turn a single cell into a baby chicken.

Eggs and Health Benefits of Eating Eggs

Eggs are one of the few foods that should be classified as “super foods.” They are loaded with nutrients, some of which are rare in the modern diet. Eggs are among the most nutritious foods on the planet. A whole egg contains all the nutrients required to turn a single cell into a baby chicken.

A single large boiled egg contains:

Vitamin A: 6% of the RDA
Folate: 5% of the RDA
Vitamin B5: 7% of the RDA
Vitamin B12: 9% of the RDA
Vitamin B2: 15% of the RDA
Phosphorus: 9% of the RDA
Selenium: 22% of the RDA
Eggs also contain decent amounts of vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B6, calcium and zinc
Cholesterol
Protein
Choline
Biotin – Vitamin B7
Antioxidants lutein and zeaxanthin

This comes with 77 calories, 6 grams of protein and 5 grams of healthy fats. Eggs also contain various trace nutrients that are important for health. In fact, eggs are pretty much the perfect food. They contain a little bit of almost every nutrient you need. If you can get your hands on pastured or omega-3 enriched eggs, these are even better. They contain higher amounts of omega-3 fat and are much higher in vitamin A and E.

Whole eggs are among the most nutritious foods on the planet, containing a little bit of almost every nutrient you need. Omega-3 enriched and/or pastured eggs are even healthier.

Long-vilified for their high cholesterol content by well-meaning doctors and scientists researching heart disease, eggs now seem to be making a bit of a comeback. So what changed?

While it’s true that just one large egg yolk has 200 mg of cholesterol—making it one of the richest sources of dietary cholesterol—eggs also contain additional nutrients that may help lower the risk for heart disease. In addition, the moderate amount of fat in an egg, about 5 grams, is mostly monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat. It’s also crucial to distinguish between dietary cholesteroland cholesterol in the blood, which are only weakly related. The focus on dietary cholesterol alone was de-emphasized as more attention was placed on the influence of saturated and trans fat on blood cholesterol. Accordingly, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015 removed the prior recommendation to limit consumption of dietary cholesterol to 300 mg per day.

Given their history, “are eggs healthy?” has become a frequently asked nutrition question. To answer this, it’s important to look at eggs not only on their own, but in context of the entire diet, especially when compared to foods they may replace (and vice-versa).

Eggs and Health

Research on moderate egg consumption in two large prospective cohort studies (nearly 40,000 men and over 80,000 women) found that up to one egg per day is not associated with increased heart disease risk in healthy individuals.

Eggs were previously associated with heart disease risk as a result of their high cholesterol content. However, a solid body of research shows that for most people, cholesterol in food has a smaller effect on blood levels of total cholesterol and harmful LDL cholesterol than does the mix of fats in the diet.

Of course, this research doesn’t give a green light to daily three-egg omelets. While a 2008 report from the Physicians’ Health Study supports the idea that eating an egg a day is generally safe for the heart, it also suggests that going much beyond that could increase the risk for heart failure later in life. You also need to pay attention to the “trimmings” that come with your eggs. To your cardiovascular system, scrambled eggs, salsa, and a 100% whole-wheat English muffin is a far different meal than scrambled eggs with cheese, sausages, home fries, and white toast.
- People who have difficulty controlling their total and LDL cholesterol may also want to be cautious about eating egg yolks and instead choose foods made with egg whites. The same is true for people with diabetes. In studies including the Nurses’ Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, heart disease risk was increased among men and women with diabetes who ate one or more eggs a day. For people who have diabetes and heart disease, it may be best to limit egg consumption to no more than three yolks per week.

Furthermore, to truly assess eggs and heart health, we need to examine how they stack-up to foods we might choose in their place—the classic nutrition substitution analysis. Using some common breakfast options as an example:
- While eggs may be a much better choice than sugary, refined grain-based options like sweetened breakfast cereals, pancakes with syrup, muffins, or bagels, they may fall short of other options. A bowl of steel-cut oats with nuts and berries, for example, will be a much better choice for heart health than an egg-centric breakfast. Consumption of whole grains and fruit predict lower risk of heart disease, and when it comes to protein, plant sources like nuts and seeds are related to lower cardiovascular and overall mortality, especially when compared to red meat or eggs.

The bottom line is while eggs may not be the optimal breakfast choice, they are certainly not the worst, falling somewhere in the middle on the spectrum of food choice and heart disease risk. For those looking to eat a healthy diet, keeping intake of eggs moderate to low will be best for most, emphasizing plant-based protein options when possible.

High in Cholesterol, but Don’t Adversely Affect Blood Cholesterol

It is true that eggs are high in cholesterol. In fact, a single egg contains 212 mg, which is over half of the recommended daily intake of 300 mg.

However, it’s important to keep in mind that cholesterol in the diet doesn’t necessarily raise cholesterol in the blood.

The liver actually produces large amounts of cholesterol every single day. When you increase your intake of dietary cholesterol, your liver simply produces less cholesterol to even it out.

Nevertheless, the response to eating eggs varies between individuals:

In 70% of people, eggs don’t raise cholesterol at all
In the other 30% (termed “hyper responders”), eggs can mildly raise total and LDL cholesterol

However, people with genetic disorders like familial hypercholesterolemia or a gene variant called ApoE4 may want to limit or avoid eggs.

Raise HDL (The “Good”) Cholesterol

HDL stands for high-density lipoprotein. It is often known as the “good” cholesterol.

People who have higher levels of HDL usually have a lower risk of heart disease, stroke and other health problems.

Eating eggs is a great way to increase HDL. In one study, eating two eggs per day for six weeks increased HDL levels by 10%.

Contain Choline — an Important Nutrient That Most People Don’t Get Enough Of

Choline is a nutrient that most people don’t even know exists, yet it is an incredibly important substance and is often grouped with the B vitamins.

Choline is used to build cell membranes and has a role in producing signaling molecules in the brain, along with various other functions.

The symptoms of choline deficiency are serious, so fortunately it’s rare.

Whole eggs are an excellent source of choline. A single egg contains more than 100 mg of this very important nutrient.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Eggs Are Linked to a Reduced Risk of Heart Disease

LDL cholesterol is generally known as the “bad” cholesterol.

It is well known that having high levels of LDL is linked to an increased risk of heart disease.

But many people don’t realize that LDL is divided into subtypes based on the size of the particles.

There are small, dense LDL particles and large LDL particles.

Many studies have shown that people who have predominantly small, dense LDL particles have a higher risk of heart disease than people who have mostly large LDL particles.

Even if eggs tend to mildly raise LDL cholesterol in some people, studies show that the particles change from small, dense to large LDL, which is an improvement.

Contain Lutein and Zeaxanthin — Antioxidants That Have Major Benefits for Eye Health

One of the consequences of aging is that eyesight tends to get worse.

There are several nutrients that help counteract some of the degenerative processes that can affect our eyes.

Two of these are called lutein and zeaxanthin. They are powerful antioxidants that accumulate in the retina of the eye.

Studies show that consuming adequate amounts of these nutrients can significantly reduce the risk of cataracts and macular degeneration, two very common eye disorders.

Egg yolks contain large amounts of both lutein and zeaxanthin.

In one controlled study, eating just 1.3 egg yolks per day for 4.5 weeks increased blood levels of lutein by 28–50% and zeaxanthin by 114–142%.

Eggs are also high in vitamin A, which deserves another mention here. Vitamin A deficiency is the most common cause of blindness in the world.

Omega-3 or Pastured Eggs Lower Triglycerides

Not all eggs are created equal. Their nutrient composition varies depending on how the hens were fed and raised.

Eggs from hens that were raised on pasture and/or fed omega-3 enriched feeds tend to be much higher in omega-3 fatty acids.

Omega-3 fatty acids are known to reduce blood levels of triglycerides, a well known risk factor for heart disease.

Studies show that consuming omega-3 enriched eggs is a very effective way to lower blood triglycerides. In one study, eating just five omega-3 enriched eggs per week for three weeks reduced triglycerides by 16–18%.

High in Quality Protein, With All the Essential Amino Acids in the Right Ratios

Proteins are the main building blocks of the human body.

They’re used to make all sorts of tissues and molecules that serve both structural and functional purposes.

Getting enough protein in the diet is very important and studies show that currently recommended amounts may be too low.

Eggs are an excellent source of protein, with a single large egg containing six grams of it.

Eggs also contain all the essential amino acids in the right ratios, so your body is well-equipped to make full use of the protein in them.

Eating enough protein can help with weight loss, increase muscle mass, lower blood pressure and optimize bone health, to name a few.

Don’t Raise Your Risk of Heart Disease and May Reduce the Risk of Stroke

For many decades, eggs have been unfairly demonized.

It has been claimed that because of the cholesterol in them, they must be bad for the heart.

Many studies published in recent years have examined the relationship between eating eggs and the risk of heart disease.

One review of 17 studies with a total of 263,938 participants found no association between egg intake and heart disease or stroke.

Many other studies have arrived at the same conclusion.

However, some studies have found that people with diabetes who eat eggs have an increased risk of heart disease.

Whether the eggs are actually causing the increased risk isn’t known, because these types of studies can only show statistical association. They cannot prove that eggs caused anything.

It is possible that people who eat lots of eggs and have diabetes are less health-conscious, on average.

On a low-carb diet, which is by far the best diet for people with diabetes, eating eggs leads to improvements in risk factors for heart disease.

Are Filling and Tend to Make You Eat Fewer Calories, Helping You Lose Weight

Eggs are incredibly filling. They are a high-protein food, and protein is, by far, the most satiating macronutrient.

Eggs score high on a scale called the satiety index, which measures the ability of foods to cause feelings of fullness and reduce later calorie intake.

In one study of 30 overweight women, eating eggs instead of bagels for breakfast increased feelings of fullness and made them automatically eat fewer calories for the next 36 hours.

In another study, replacing a bagel breakfast with an egg breakfast caused significant weight loss over a period of eight weeks.

Eggs Do Not Cause Heart Disease

Historically, eggs have been considered unhealthy because they contain cholesterol.

A large egg contains 212 mg of cholesterol, which is a lot compared to most other foods.

However, many studies have shown that the dietary cholesterol in eggs does not adversely affect cholesterol levels in the blood.

In fact, eggs raise your “good” HDL cholesterol and change your “bad” LDL cholesterol from small and dense to large, which is benign.

One analysis of 17 studies on egg consumption and health discovered no connection between eggs and either heart disease or stroke in otherwise healthy people.

What’s more, multiple other studies have led to the same conclusion.

Eggs are particularly rich in the two antioxidants lutein and zeaxanthin.

These antioxidants gather in the retina of the eye where they protect against harmful sunlight and reduce the risk of eye diseases like macular degeneration and cataracts.

In one study, supplementing with an average of 1.3 egg yolks per day for 4.5 weeks increased blood levels of lutein by 28–50% and zeaxanthin by 114–142%.

If you want to learn about other foods that are good for your eye health, check out this article.

Just think about it, one egg contains all the nutrients and building blocks required to grow a baby chicken.

Eggs are loaded with high-quality proteins, vitamins, minerals, good fats and various trace nutrients.

A large egg contains (10):

Only 77 calories, with 5 grams of fat and 6 grams of protein with all 9 essential amino acids.
Rich in iron, phosphorus, selenium and vitamins A, B12, B2 and B5 (among others).
About 113 mg of choline, a very important nutrient for the brain.

If you decide to include eggs in your diet, make sure to eat omega-3-enriched or pastured eggs. They are much more nutritious.

Make sure to eat the yolks, since they contain pretty much all the nutrients.

The Bottom Line

Studies clearly show that eating up to three whole eggs per day is perfectly safe.

There is no evidence that going beyond that is harmful — it is just “uncharted territory,” as it hasn’t been studied.

Eggs are pretty much nature’s perfect food.

On top of everything else, they are also cheap, easy to prepare, go with almost any food and taste awesome.

While eggs may not be the optimal breakfast choice, they are certainly not the worst, falling somewhere in the middle on the spectrum of food choice and heart disease risk. For those looking to eat a healthy diet, keeping intake of eggs moderate to low will be best for most, emphasizing plant-based protein options when possible.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

Did You Know?

While chicken eggs are the most common variety (especially in the U.S.), eggs from a range of birds—including ducks and quail—are also consumed worldwide.
Brown eggs are not more nutritious than white. The color and size of an egg are determined by the breed of hen, which can produce white, cream, brown, blue, green or speckled eggs! The color of the yolk is also not reflective of nutritional value but the type of poultry feed.
Eggs vary in available sizes from medium to jumbo, but eggs graded “large” are the standard size preferred in recipes.

References

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015 – 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans; 2015.
Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, et al. A prospective study of egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women. JAMA. 1999;281:1387-94.
Fernandez ML. Dietary cholesterol provided by eggs and plasma lipoproteins in healthy populations. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2006;9:8-12.
Shin JY, Xun P, Nakamura Y, He K. Egg consumption in relation to risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98:146-59.
Djousse L, Gaziano JM. Egg consumption and risk of heart failure in the Physicians’ Health Study. Circulation. 2008;117:512-6.
Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of Animal and Plant Protein Intake With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:1453-63.

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Dark Chocolate and Health Benefits

August 19, 2022August 19, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Dark chocolate is loaded with nutrients that can positively affect your health. Made from the seed of the cacao tree, it’s one of the best sources of antioxidants you can find.

Dark Chocolate & Its Health Benefits

No introductions are needed for this highly treasured food that dates back to 2000 BC. At that time, the Maya from Central America, the first connoisseurs of chocolate, drank it as a bitter fermented beverage mixed with spices or wine. Dark chocolate is loaded with nutrients that can positively affect your health. Made from the seed of the cacao tree, it’s one of the best sources of antioxidants you can find. Studies show that dark chocolate can improve your health and lower the risk of heart disease.

Today, the long rows of chocolate squares sitting neatly on your store shelves are the end result of many steps that begin as a cacao pod, larger than the size of your hand. Seeds (or beans) are extracted from the pod and fermented, dried, and roasted into what we recognize as cocoa beans. The shells of the bean are then separated from the meat, or cocoa nibs. The nibs are ground into a liquid called chocolate liquor, and separated from the fatty portion, or cocoa butter. The liquor is further refined to produce the cocoa solids and chocolate that we eat. After removing the nibs, the cocoa bean is ground into cocoa powder that is used in baking or beverages.

Dark chocolate contains 50-90% cocoa solids, cocoa butter, and sugar, whereas milk chocolate contains anywhere from 10-50% cocoa solids, cocoa butter, milk in some form, and sugar. Though dark chocolate should not contain milk, there may be traces of milk from cross-contamination during processing, as the same machinery is often used to produce milk and dark chocolate. Lower quality chocolates may also add butter fat, vegetable oils, or artificial colors or flavors. White chocolate does not contain any cocoa solids and is made simply of cocoa butter, sugar, and milk.

Source Of

Iron
Copper
Magnesium
Zinc
Phosphorus
Flavanols

Dark Chocolate and Health

Cocoa is rich in plant chemicals called flavanols that may help to protect the heart. Dark chocolate contains up to 2-3 times more flavanol-rich cocoa solids than milk chocolate. Flavanols have been shown to support the production of nitric oxide (NO) in the endolethium (the inner cell lining of blood vessels) that helps to relax the blood vessels and improve blood flow, thereby lowering blood pressure. [1,2] Flavanols in chocolate can increase insulin sensitivity in short term studies; in the long run this could reduce risk of diabetes. [3,4]

Observational studies support the benefits of cocoa flavanols. The link between blood pressure and high cocoa intake was described in a study of the Kuna Indians, an isolated tribe who live on the Caribbean Coast of Panama. [5] Hypertension was extremely uncommon in this group, even among older ages, and even with a dietary salt intake that is greater than most Western populations. When the Kuna migrated to urban environments and changed their diets, their rates of high blood pressure increased. Notably, their traditional intake of cocoa as a beverage was very high, at more than five cups daily of either home-grown or Colombian cocoa powder rich in flavanols. The urinary levels of flavanols in the island-dwelling Kuna were significantly higher and their rates of death from heart disease, cancer, and diabetes significantly lower than their counterparts living in urban centers.

Other observational studies suggest a link between high cocoa or chocolate intake of 6 grams daily (1-2 small squares) and a reduced risk of heart disease and mortality, possibly in part by reducing blood pressure and inflammation. [6,7]

Dark chocolate is high in calories (150-170 calories per ounce) and can contribute to weight gain if eaten in excess. However, chocolate, like nuts can induce satiety, so the longer term implications for weight control are not clear. It also contains a moderate amount of saturated fat, which can negatively affect blood lipid levels, though its heart-protective effects from flavanols appear to outweigh the risk. Choosing dark chocolate and eating modest quantities may offer the greatest health benefits.

Purchase and Storage

Choose 70% dark chocolate or higher to obtain the most flavanols. Though keep in mind that the higher the percentage of cocoa solids, the greater the bitter flavor.
Store in a cool dry area (65-70 F) in a tightly sealed container. Do not refrigerate, which can promote the chocolate to “bloom,” a whitish coating caused by sugar rising to the surface due to excess moisture. Bloom does not affect flavor but does not look appealing.
If stored properly, dark chocolate will last up to two years.

Serve

To melt: Dark chocolate should be heated gradually to prevent scorching. This may be done on a stove top on low heat or in a microwave oven on 50% power. Break chocolate into smaller pieces and place in pan or microwave to heat. Stir continually (or after each minute) to ensure even heating. Drizzle 1-2 tablespoons of melted dark chocolate over oatmeal, yogurt, or fresh fruit for an easy healthful snack.
Serve a few squares of dark chocolate or chocolate curls with fresh fruit and nuts for an easy elegant dessert.
Blend 1-2 tablespoons of unprocessed cocoa with one large frozen banana for a dairy-free version of chocolate ice cream.
Because the bitter flavor increases with a higher percentage of cocoa solids, try taking a small piece and allowing it to melt slowly in your mouth. This technique may offer a different, more pleasurable experience than quickly chewing and swallowing the chocolate.

Dark Chocolate Health Benefits

Let’s face it — chocolate is one of life’s most decadent treats. No matter how you enjoy it — as a candy bar, in a hot drink, drizzled over ice cream — chocolate brings joy.

Although chocolate is delicious, it’s not always nutritious — or even real chocolate at all. White chocolate, for example, doesn’t contain cocoa solids. That means it’s much more of a confection than anything else.

But dark chocolate benefits are numerous, as dietitian Devon Peart, MHSc, BASc, RD, explains.

Is Dark Chocolate Healthy?

When compared with other kinds of chocolate, dark chocolate stands tall. “Dark chocolate has lower added sugar and fat than milk or white chocolate,” says Peart, while noting it also boasts an abundance of beneficial antioxidants called flavonoids.

At their core, milk chocolate and dark chocolate have similar ingredients, including cocoa butter, sugar and cocoa solids. The two kinds of chocolate differ in their percentage of cocoa solids, however.

“Dark chocolate has between 50% and 90% cocoa solids,” says Peart. “And milk chocolate has between 10% and 50%.”

Unsurprisingly, the percentage of cocoa solids can affect the magnitude of dark chocolate’s benefits. “The higher percentage of cocoa solids, the more flavonoids and the lower sugar,” Peart explains. “If you’re doing 75% or 80% dark chocolate, there’ll be less added sugar than if you were at 50% dark chocolate.”

In addition to being lower in sugar, here are other dark chocolate benefits:

Rich in Flavanols

Flavanols are a type of flavonoid that’s found in plants such as the cacao tree. These trees produce the cacao beans used to make chocolate. “Flavanols are abundant in cacao beans,” says Peart. “The cacao beans are fermented and roasted, producing what we call cocoa beans. We make cocoa solids from those.”

Dark chocolate “contains two to three times more flavanol-rich cocoa solids as compared to milk chocolate,” Peart adds. “It’s significantly higher.”

That’s a huge health benefit for your heart. Flavanols are related to the production of nitric oxide, which relaxes your blood vessels and improves blood flow. In turn, this also lowers blood pressure.

Better blood flow is also great for our overall health. “Improved blood flow means protection from heart disease,” says Peart. “It’s also good for cognition [understanding thought], because you’re having more blood flow to the brain.”

Due to their antioxidant properties, flavanols are also beneficial in fighting cell damage relating to aging. And although more research is needed, scientists have also found some evidence that flavanol-richer chocolate can increase your insulin sensitivity. “The more you are sensitive to insulin, the lower your diabetes risk,” Peart states.

Source of Important Minerals

Dark chocolate is packed full of important minerals, including iron, magnesium, zinc, copper and phosphorus. In your body, these minerals are used to support factors such as immunity (zinc), can help keep your bones and teeth healthy (phosphorus), and contribute to better sleep quality (magnesium).

Non-Dairy

As its name implies, milk chocolate contains some form of milk or milk solids. But dark chocolate is generally considered non-dairy. That means it’s a good option if you have a sensitivity to milk products or try to keep a dairy-free diet. Peart notes that manufacturing processes could introduce dairy products into the chocolate, so it’s best to check the ingredient list before purchase.

High in Fiber

Compared to other sweet treats, dark chocolate is high in fiber. “In a small amount of dark chocolate (about an ounce), there’s are about four grams of fiber,” Peart says.

Protects Skin From Sun Damage

The antioxidants in dark chocolate improve blood flow to your skin and protect it from sun damage. A small study even found that eating chocolate high in flavanols — that is, dark chocolate — can protect your skin from the effects of UV (ultraviolet) rays.

Enhances Your Mood

Good news: If you feel better after eating dark chocolate, there’s a scientific reason for that. Dark chocolate has long been associated with feelings of pleasure and enjoyment. Those feelings may originate from what are called polyphenolic compounds.

“Polyphenols are antioxidants that lower cortisol, a stress hormone,” Peart explains. “So there are mood-enhancing benefits to eating dark chocolate.” In fact, a study published in January 2022 found that participants who ate 85% dark chocolate daily maintained better overall mood than others who ate chocolate with less cocoa — or no chocolate at all.

Are There Downsides to Dark Chocolate?

At higher percentages, dark chocolate has a bitter taste and contains more caffeine.

“Caffeine can exacerbate reflux, or heartburn,” says Peart. “If you have a sensitivity to caffeine or don’t want to have caffeine because it’s a stimulant, you should stay away from dark chocolate.”

The amount of caffeine in dark chocolate is far less than the amount you’ll find in coffee, though. “Even if you had two ounces of 70% dark chocolate, there would be around 50 to 60 milligrams of caffeine,” Peart says. “In an eight-ounce cup of coffee, which is much smaller than most people drink, there’s 100 to 200 milligrams.”

Dark chocolate also contains a “moderate amount of saturated fat,” Peart adds, which is the kind associated with high cholesterol. “But the heart-protective benefits of flavanols are thought to outweigh the downside of the saturated fat in dark chocolate.”

What’s The Recommended Dark Chocolate Serving Size?

Peart says a recommended dark chocolate serving size is between one and two ounces, which is about 30 to 60 grams. That’s a bigger amount of chocolate than you might think. For example, one ounce is the equivalent of three thin squares of chocolate broken off from a bigger bar. Dark chocolate is also best savored slowly — a little goes a long way.

Should You Eat Dark Chocolate Every Day?

As with any sweet treat, moderation is key. “One misconception often is, ‘Well, dark chocolate is good for me, so I can have however much I want,’” Peart says. “There are some benefits to dark chocolate in terms of antioxidants, like the flavanols. But they’re not compelling enough that we would say you should definitely include this in your diet. Pound for pound, it’s a high-calorie food. It’s definitely something to enjoy in moderation.”

Peart recommends thinking about your dark chocolate consumption much like you would consider your consumption of nuts. Both are filling — meaning, you don’t have to eat as much to feel satisfied — and high in fat, so they are high calorie. You want to stick to smaller portions.

“That being said, the reason why I do often recommend dark chocolate as a good option for a snack or a treat is because it has a strong bitter flavor,” Peart says. “We don’t need a lot of chocolate to enjoy it.”

Because of this strong flavor, dark chocolate is admittedly an acquired taste. “When people first have it, they usually don’t like it,” Peart says. She recommends starting at a less-bitter dark chocolate and moving up. “Start by having 50% dark chocolate and then move up to 65% and then 70% and work your way up.”

Although there are some downsides, dark chocolate is overall a healthier choice if you’re looking for a delicious way to finish off a meal. “And you’ll need less of it to get satisfaction than you would from other sweets,” Peart says. “Dark chocolate is comforting. It signals to your brain that you’re satisfied and finished. And it is satiety-inducing [feeling satisfied], so you are more likely to feel like you’ve had enough.”

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Dark Chocolate Nutritious

If you buy quality dark chocolate with a high cocoa content, then it’s quite nutritious.

It contains a decent amount of soluble fiber and is loaded with minerals.

A 100-gram bar of dark chocolate with 70–85% cocoa contains:

11 grams of fiber
66% of the DV for iron
57% of the DV for magnesium
196% of the DV for copper
85% of the DV for manganese

In addition, it has plenty of potassium, phosphorus, zinc, and selenium.

Of course, 100 grams (3.5 ounces) is a fairly large amount and not something you should be consuming daily. These nutrients also come with 600 calories and moderate amounts of sugar.

For this reason, dark chocolate is best consumed in moderation.

The fatty acid profile of cocoa and dark chocolate is also good. The fats consist mostly of oleic acid (a heart-healthy fat also found in olive oil), stearic acid, and palmitic acid.

The stearic acid has a neutral effect on body cholesterol. Palmitic acid can raise cholesterol levels, but it only makes up one-third of the total fat calories.

Dark chocolate also contains stimulants like caffeine and theobromine, but it’s unlikely to keep you awake at night, as the amount of caffeine is very small compared with coffee.

Quality dark chocolate is rich in fiber, iron, magnesium, copper, manganese, and a few other minerals.

Dark Chocolates are Powerful Source of Antioxidants

ORAC stands for oxygen radical absorbance capacity. It’s a measure of the antioxidant activity of foods.

Basically, researchers set a bunch of free radicals (bad) against a sample of a food and see how well the antioxidants in the food can disarm the free radicals.

Based on these studies, chocolate is considered rich in antioxidants. But the biological relevance of ORAC values is questioned, as it’s measured in a test tube and may not have the same effect in the body.

Research in humans does not always show the same range of antioxidant effects for chocolate. But experts say there isn’t enough evidence yet to say for certain.

Dark chocolate is loaded with organic compounds that are biologically active and function as antioxidants. These include polyphenols, flavanols and catechins, among others. According to research, the polyphenols in dark chocolate may help lower some forms of LDL (“bad”) cholesterol when combined with other foods like almonds and cocoa.

One study showed that cocoa and dark chocolate had more antioxidant activity, polyphenols, and flavanols than any other fruits tested, which included blueberries and acai berries.

Cocoa and dark chocolate have a wide variety of powerful antioxidants. In fact, they have way more than most other foods.

Dark Chocolate May Improve Blood Flow and Lower Blood Pressure

The flavanoids in dark chocolate can stimulate the endothelium, the lining of arteries, to produce nitric oxide (NO).

One of the functions of NO is to send signals to the arteries to relax, which lowers the resistance to blood flow and therefore reduces blood pressure.

Many controlled studies show that cocoa and dark chocolate can improve blood flow and lower blood pressure, though the effects are usually mild.

However, one study in people with type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure showed no effect, so take this with a grain of salt. It’s possible that people who are already receiving treatment for high blood pressure may not get any additional benefit from adding cocoa flavanols to their diet.

Given the great variation between studies on this subject, it’s clear that more research is needed.

The bioactive compounds in cocoa may improve blood flow in the arteries and cause a small but statistically significant decrease in blood pressure.

Dark Chocolate Raises HDL and Protects LDL From Oxidation

Consuming dark chocolate can improve several important risk factors for heart disease. It may protect against high cholesterol.

In a small study, eating dark chocolate supplemented with the flavanol lycopene was found to significantly decrease levels of total cholesterol, LDL (“bad”) cholesterol, and triglycerides.

Some forms of LDL cholesterol are more likely to oxidize, which happens if they react with free radicals in your body. Oxidation makes the LDL particle itself reactive and capable of damaging other tissues, such as the lining of the arteries in your heart.

It makes perfect sense that cocoa lowers oxidation-prone forms of LDL. It contains an abundance of powerful antioxidants that do make it into the bloodstream and protect lipoproteins against oxidative damage.

The flavanols in dark chocolate can also reduce insulin resistance, which is another common risk factor for diseases like heart disease and diabetes.

However, dark chocolate also contains sugar, which can have the opposite effect.

Dark chocolate improves several important risk factors for disease. It lowers oxidation-prone LDL and improves insulin sensitivity.

Dark Chocolate May Reduce Heart Disease Risk

The compounds in dark chocolate appear to be highly protective against the oxidation of LDL.

In the long term, this should cause much less cholesterol to lodge in the arteries, resulting in a lower risk of heart disease.

In fact, research show a fairly drastic improvement.

Over time, a number of studies have shown that consuming flavanol-rich cocoa or chocolate can lower blood pressure and improve cardiovascular health.

A review of studies revealed that eating chocolate 3 times per week lowered the risk of cardiovascular disease by 9% . Eating chocolate more often showed little additional benefit.

Another review suggested that eating 45 grams of chocolate per week lowers cardiovascular disease risk by 11%. Consuming more than 100 grams per week does not appear to produce health benefits.

A 2017 clinical trial found that subjects who consumed almonds with or without dark chocolate showed improved LDL cholesterol levels.

Although all of these findings are promising, more evidence is needed to know if it was the chocolate that reduced the risk.

However, since the biological process is known (lower blood pressure and lower oxidization-prone LDL), it’s plausible that regularly eating dark chocolate may reduce the risk of heart disease.

Research shows a reduction in heart disease risk among those who consume a moderate amount of chocolate.

Dark Chocolate May Protect Your Skin From the Sun

The bioactive compounds in dark chocolate may also be great for your skin.

The flavanols can protect against sun damage, improve blood flow to the skin, and increase skin density and hydration (16).

The minimal erythemal dose (MED) is the minimum amount of UVB rays required to cause redness in the skin 24 hours after exposure.

Studies have shown that MED can increase and even double after consuming high-flavanol dark chocolate or cocoa for 12 weeks (16). The result is that your skin has better protection from the sun.

If you’re planning a beach vacation, consider enjoying some extra dark chocolate in the prior weeks and months. But check with your doctor or dermatologist before forgoing your normal skin care routine in favor of more dark chocolate. And remember that chocolate can’t replace sunscreen and other forms of sun protection.

Studies show that the flavanols from cocoa can improve blood flow to the skin and protect it from sun damage.

Dark Chocolate Could Improve Brain Function

The good news isn’t over yet. Dark chocolate may also improve the function of your brain.

Studies show that eating high flavanol cocoa can improve blood flow to the brain in young adults. This may explain why eating cocoa daily appears to improve attention, verbal learning, and memory.

Cocoa flavanoids may also help maintain cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment and reduce the chance of progressing to dementia. But more research is needed.

Additionally, cocoa contains stimulant substances like caffeine and theobromine, which may be a key reason why it can improve brain function in the short term.

Cocoa or dark chocolate may improve brain function by increasing blood flow. It also contains stimulants like caffeine and theobromine.

The Bottom Line

There is considerable evidence that cocoa can provide powerful health benefits, being especially protective against heart disease.

Of course, this doesn’t mean you should go all out and consume lots of chocolate every day. It’s still loaded with calories and easy to overeat.

Maybe have a square or two after dinner and try to savor them. If you want the benefits of cocoa without the calories in chocolate, consider making a hot cocoa without any cream or sugar.

Also, note that a lot of the chocolate on the market is not nutritious.

Choose quality stuff: dark chocolate with 70% or higher cocoa content. You might want to check out this guide on how to find the best dark chocolate.

Dark chocolates typically contain some sugar, but the amounts are usually small and the darker the chocolate, the less sugar it will contain. Chocolate is a remarkable food that tastes awesome while providing significant health benefits.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

Did You Know?

Cocoa is sometimes treated with alkali, or Dutch-processed, to improve the flavor and appearance. However this causes a significant loss of flavanols. Natural cocoa, found in the baking aisle, retains the most flavanols. [8]
The higher percentage of cocoa solids, the higher the caffeine content. Two ounces of 70% dark chocolate contains about 50-60 mg caffeine. In comparison, an 8-ounce cup of coffee contains 100-200 milligrams of caffeine.
If your chocolate has developed bloom, no need to throw it out! You can remove the bloom by melting the chocolate, stirring it well, and then allowing it to slowly cool back into a solid.
Chocolate is derived from an intensive process of farming, harvesting, and transport, often employing less expensive labor or child labor overseas. “Fair-Trade” labeled chocolate certifies that the chocolate has been manufactured at a fair wage and with the exclusion of child labor.
Dark chocolate brands have a wide range of cocoa percentages, which can be confusing. When you’re choosing dark chocolate, look for bars that have a cocoa content of 70% or higher. Higher-percentage dark chocolate contains a higher concentration of antioxidants and nutrients compared to chocolate with a lower cocoa percentage. Consuming chocolate with a higher cocoa content is associated with several health benefits, such as improved heart health and brain function. Chocolate with a higher cocoa percentage also tends to be lower in sugar.
Avoid Alkalized or Dutched Dark Chocolate. Dutching is a chocolate processing method that involves treatment with alkali, otherwise known as alkalization. This method is used to change the color of the chocolate and reduce the bitter flavor. However, several studies have demonstrated that Dutching significantly reduces the amount of antioxidants in chocolate. For this reason, chocolate that has been Dutched should be avoided. To check whether chocolate has been Dutched, check the ingredients list for something along the lines of “cocoa processed with alkali.”

References

Fisher ND, Hughes M, Gerhard-Herman M, Hollenberg NK. Flavanol-rich cocoa induces nitric-oxide-dependent vasodilation in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 2003;21:2281-6.
Engler MB, Engler MM, Chen CY, et al. Flavonoid-rich dark chocolate improves endothelial function and increases plasma epicatechin concentrations in healthy adults. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;23:197-204.
Grassi D, Desideri G, Mai F, et al. Cocoa, glucose tolerance, and insulin signaling: cardiometabolic protection. J Agric Food Chem. 2015;63:9919-26.
Hooper L, Kay C, Abdelhamid A, et al. Effects of chocolate, cocoa, and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95:740-51.
Hollenberg NK, Fisher ND, McCullough ML. Flavanols, the Kuna, cocoa consumption, and nitric oxide. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2009;3:105-12.
Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Kok FJ, Kromhout D. Cocoa intake, blood pressure, and cardiovascular mortality: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:411-7.
Buijsse B, Weikert C, Drogan D, Bergmann M, Boeing H. Chocolate consumption in relation to blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease in German adults. Eur Heart J. 2010;31:1616-23.
Miller KB, Hurst WJ, Payne MJ, et al. Impact of alkalization on the antioxidant and flavanol content of commercial cocoa powders. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56:8527-33.

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Dairy and Health

August 27, 2022August 18, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Dairy and Health & Why Should We Consume Dairy Products?

Dairy foods include a range of food and beverage products that make up classic combinations: cereal with milk, cheese and crackers, yogurt and berries, ice cream sundaes. While ice cream and cream cheese are examples of indulgent dairy foods that are viewed as every-so-often treats, a lack of clarity exists over other dairy foods that offer protein, calcium, vitamin D, and other healthful nutrients. Is cheese a healthy food? Is non/low-fat milk and yogurt better for the heart than full-fat versions? Traditionally, whole milk dairy products have been viewed as the less healthful choice because of their predominant type of fat—saturated fat.

Saturated fats were targeted in the 1970s and 1980s as potentially causing harm to health. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans in 1980 recommended choosing non/low-fat dairy foods in place of full-fat versions (except for young children). In 2010, the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act required schools in the U.S. to replace whole milk with non/low-fat unflavored milk or non-fat flavored milk. Sales of low-fat and fat-free milks, yogurts, and cheeses skyrocketed despite complaints about their lack of flavor and satisfaction. The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines recommend three 1-cup (8 ounce) servings of non/low-fat milk or similar amounts of low-fat cheese, yogurt, or other dairy foods for adults and children over 9 years old to increase calcium intake and reduce the risk of bone fractures. [1]

To the surprise of many, research in the 2000s defied these longstanding guidelines to suggest that full-fat dairy foods might be just as healthful as their lower-fat counterparts, provoking scientists to look more closely at all dairy products. Upon closer examination, they realized that dairy foods are not one in the same. The fermentation process required to make cheese and yogurt may impart unique health benefits as well as improved digestibility from a lower lactose content. That said, howpeople eat dairy is important to consider. Take cheese for example: is it consumed melted on fast-food burgers, pasta, and pizza that are already high in refined carbohydrate, sodium, and saturated fat? Or is it served in thin wedges, eaten with fresh fruit as a snack or dessert? Another key point is frequency and amount. If people drink several glasses of low-fat milk or snack on reduced-fat cheese throughout the day, they might end up eating as much saturated fat (or more) than if they had consumed one glass of whole milk or serving of full-fat cheese.

These questions are important to consider when reviewing scientific research on dairy foods.

Source Of:

What is Lactose, and What Causes Lactose Intolerance?

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk and all dairy products. The body breaks down the sugar molecule and digests it with the help of an enzyme called lactase. Some people have low levels of lactase due to genetics, digestive problems, or gastrointestinal surgeries that interfere with its production. Without lactase, the undigested lactose passes into the small intestine where bacteria ferment it, producing symptoms of gas, bloating, diarrhea, or constipation.

Dairy foods like milk, ice cream, cream, and soft cheeses like cottage and ricotta are high in lactose. Yogurt and aged cheeses are low in lactose because their production involves fermentation by natural bacteria that break down and consume the lactose. This is why some people with lactose intolerance may be able to safely consume some types of cheese and yogurt without side effects. Lactaid pills are a commercial product that contains the lactase enzyme that breaks down lactose, and can be taken before meals containing dairy to help reduce uncomfortable side effects. Lactaid milk is cow’s milk that contains the lactase enzyme so the product is very low in lactose.

Dairy and Health

The nutrients and types of fat in dairy are involved with bone health, cardiovascular disease, and other conditions. Calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus are important for bone building, and the high potassium content of dairy foods can help lower blood pressure.

Studies on dairy have limitations that may be a cause of seemingly conflicting findings. In observational studies, people who consume a high amount of milk may be different from those who do not in ways that are not fully captured by statistical adjustments. Randomized clinical trials tend to be short in duration with a small number of participants, making it difficult to see possible effects of dairy intake on chronic diseases like heart disease and bone fractures that take years to develop. Thus, longer-term epidemiological studies may provide additional insights.

For Your Health and the Planet’s Health

The production of dairy foods places considerable demand on land, water, and other natural resources, and dairy-producing ruminant animals like cattle, sheep, and goats generate methane—a powerful greenhouse gas. In identifying a dietary pattern both healthy for people and sustainable for the planet, the “planetary health diet” sets the target for dairy foods at 250 grams per day (with a range of 0 to 500 grams per day). 250 grams is about one (8-ounce) cup of milk, yogurt, or equivalent amounts of cheese (because milk is about 90% water, this amounts to about 1 oz of hard cheese). If everyone were to consume 2 servings of dairy per day, climate change would be difficult to control. [26]

Bottom Line

Both full-fat and non/low-fat dairy foods can be good sources of protein, calcium, B vitamins, and vitamin D. Dairy foods that undergo fermentation, such as yogurt and some cheeses, are lower in lactose and contain healthful gut bacteria that may benefit digestive health. However, the nutrients in milk can be found in other foods and therefore is not an essential food even for the normal growth and development in children and for the prevention of health conditions like bone fractures.

Although full-fat dairy foods are high in saturated fat, whether full-fat dairy is more harmful (or more beneficial) to health than non/low-fat dairy will depend on the sources calories that replace the dairy fat. If this is sugar there may be little difference, but if this is unsaturated fat (such as in nuts or plant oils), the lower fat version would be better. The total amount of dairy consumption is also important; at only one serving per day, the amount of fat would not be important, whereas it would with 3 or more servings per day. Thus, while more research emerges, the type of dairy one incorporates into their dietary pattern can be a matter of personal preference. Some people enjoy using non-fat milk in their cereal or eating a low-fat Greek yogurt. Others may find that choosing a richer full-fat yogurt as an afternoon snack works well to prevent extra snacking before dinner. The overall dietary pattern is key, and creating a balanced plate allows for 0 to 2 servings daily of dairy (of any type) can be healthy.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Bone Health

The recommendations for dairy foods from the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020 are based on short-term clinical trials that have shown that higher intakes of calcium result in small increases in bone mineral density. However, after one year the differences in bone density are not significant compared with a placebo. [2] Meta-analyses of prospective studies have not found an association of total dairy food intake and hip fracture risk. [3,4]

The effects of dairy foods are of special interest with children due to calcium and vitamin D playing an important role in bone growth. These nutrients are essential, but the critical question is the amount needed to minimize bone fracture risk.

A randomized controlled trial followed 240 girls and boys between the ages of 9-16 years for 18 months who had a lower dairy intake at baseline (less than 800 mg of calcium daily). It found no differences in bone mineral density in children who ate up to 3 servings versus 2 servings of dairy daily. [5] These findings suggest that more than two servings per day will not increase bone mineral density.

A large cohort study following 96,000 men and women over 22 years did not find that greater intakes of milk during teenage years was associated with a lower risk of hip fractures later in life. [6] In fact, each additional glass of milk per day during teenage years was associated with a 9% greater risk of hip fracture in men. Part of this risk was related to a taller height, an independent risk factor for hip fractures. No association was found in teenage girls.

Sometimes research looks at calcium intakes compared with calcium balance (how much calcium is eaten from foods and supplements compared with how much calcium is lost by the body). Calcium balance is positive during growing phases, such as in childhood and adolescence. Calcium balance is negative in the elderly, when the risk of bone loss increases. Studies have found that amount of calcium needed to achieve positive calcium balance varies among groups of people. Although the U.S. recommendation of about 3 cups daily of milk or dairy foods daily provides about 900-1000 mg calcium, some studies have shown that children and adults can achieve positive calcium balance with as little as 400 mg daily. [7,8]

Cardiovascular Disease

More than half of the type of fat in dairy is saturated, which is a known risk factor for heart disease and the reason why the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends only non/low-fat dairy products. However, removing one type of food from the diet usually means replacing it with another. Swapping saturated fat with low-fat foods but also possibly more refined carbohydrates may help to lower LDL “bad” cholesterol but can raise triglycerides, a different risk factor for cardiovascular disease. High blood levels of triglycerides can lead to hardening of the arteries.

Based on large cohort studies, dairy foods appear protective from cardiovascular disease compared with similar servings of red meat or refined carbohydrates. However, an increased risk of cardiovascular disease is seen eating dairy foods in comparison with fish, nuts, or unsaturated fats. The results were similar with full-fat versus low-fat dairy. [9-11]
The PURE (Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology) study, a large multinational cohort following more than 136,000 participants from 21 countries for nine years looked at the relationship between dairy intake and mortality and cardiovascular disease. [12] It found that a higher intake of dairy (2+ servings daily), specifically milk and cheese, compared with no intake was associated with a 17% lower risk of death from any cause and 14% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and 34% lower risk of stroke. A higher intake of saturated fat from dairy sources was not associated with death or CVD. The PURE study included primarily low-income and middle-income countries where refined carbohydrates are a greater part of the diet and dairy foods are less commonly eaten. Therefore, in countries where food variety is more limited, adding a moderate amount of dairy may show a benefit with cardiovascular health if it replaces carbohydrate in the diet.

Diabetes

The evidence on dairy foods and their relation to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is inconclusive. While population studies on total dairy intake tend to show little or no association with T2DM, closer evaluations of specific foods like yogurt suggest a possible protective effect. The protein and probiotics in yogurt may help to lower blood glucose and affect gut microbiota that prevents weight gain. [13]

A meta-analysis of 22 cohort studies with more than 579,000 individuals found a weak association between higher total dairy intake (both full-fat and low-fat types) and lower risk of T2DM. [14] When specifically looking at yogurt, the study found a stronger association of reduced diabetes risk with moderate intakes.
A prospective study of three large cohorts of 194,458 men and women from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and the Nurses’ Health Study I and II found that total dairy intake including high and low-fat dairy was not associated with risk of T2DM. [15] However, one serving of yogurt daily was associated with a 17% reduced risk of diabetes.

The types of saturated fats in dairy have also gained greater attention, as some types of saturated fatty acids in dairy are different than those in red meat, and may have a more neutral effect on blood cholesterol. A study of 3,333 adults from the Nurses’ Health Study and Health Professional’s Follow-up Study assessed the participants’ blood levels of various dairy fatty acids. [16] It found that higher blood levels of these saturated fatty acids were associated with less incidents of T2DM. However, it is possible the metabolic abnormalities that precede the diagnosis of T2DM by many years may have affected the blood levels of these fatty acids.

Weight

It has been speculated that although full-fat dairy contains more calories and fat than reduced-fat dairy, full-fat versions may taste better and be more filling. This in turn might prevent extra snacking between meals or even eating less over the course of a day. However, randomized clinical trials have not shown an overall effect of dairy foods on weight loss or body weight changes. [17] In a large prospective study of three cohorts of men and women, intakes of low-fat and whole milk and cheese had no association with weight changes, though yogurt in the diet was associated with less weight gain over time. [18]

Cancer

The fat in dairy foods contains estrogenic hormones that are associated with a higher risk of some hormone-related cancers. High amounts of dairy foods in the diet have been associated with certain cancers, including endometrial and prostate, but with a lower risk of colorectal cancer. Findings for breast cancer have not been consistent [8].

A prospective study of 68,019 women found that total dairy intake was associated with a greater risk of endometrial cancer among postmenopausal women who were not receiving hormone therapy, [19] a finding possibly related to the sex-hormone content of dairy products.
A prospective study of 926 men from the Physicians’ Health Study diagnosed with non-metastatic prostate cancer and followed for up to 10 years looked at dairy intake in relation to cancer deaths. [20] Men eating three or more servings daily of total dairy products had a 76% increased risk of deaths from all causes and 141% increased risk of death from prostate cancer compared with those who ate less than one dairy food a day. There was little difference in risk between high-fat and low-fat dairy.
- A 2014 meta-analysis found that high intakes of dairy products, milk, low-fat milk, cheese, and total, dietary, and dairy calcium, but not supplemental or nondairy calcium, may increase total prostate cancer risk. According to the authors, the results suggest that other components of dairy foods rather than fat and calcium may increase prostate cancer risk. [21]
The World Cancer Research Fund reports strong evidence that dairy foods decrease the risk of colorectal cancer. This is likely due, at least in part, to their high content of calcium. [22] A study following 477,122 men and women for 11 years looked at whole-fat and low-fat dairy foods and colorectal cancer; it did not find a difference in the apparent protective effect of dairy foods based on the fat content. [23]
In one prospective study of 52,795 North American women, higher intakes of milk (but not cheese or yogurt) were associated with greater risk of breast cancer. [24] However, in another study of diets in adolescents, milk intake was shown to be unrelated to a future risk of breast cancer. [25]

Milk

Milk is the liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals, including humans. Breast milk is the preferred food for infants, as it is well-tolerated while their digestive tracts develop and mature. Dairy milk may be introduced at later ages if tolerated well. Although dairy milk may come from any mammal, cows, goats, buffalo, and sheep are common producers. This section will focus on dairy milk from cows, and briefly discuss non-dairy plant milk alternatives.

Whole cow’s milk contains about 87% water. The remaining 13% contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Processing techniques remove fat to produce lower fat varieties: “reduced fat” contains 2% milkfat, “lowfat” contains 1% milkfat, and “nonfat” or “skim” has virtually no milkfat. Cows are often pregnant while they are milked, so dairy milk contains hormones like insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), estrogens, and progestins. Some cows are given additional hormones to increase milk production.

Source Of

Calcium
Protein
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Vitamin B12
Potassium
Phosphorus
Vitamin A and Vitamin D (added during processing)

Milk and Health

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends including three 8-ounce servings of milk daily (or equal portions of other dairy foods like cheese or yogurt), which is justified to increase calcium intake and reduce the risk of osteoporosis and fractures. Marketing efforts such as the iconic “Got Milk?” campaign with celebrities donning milk mustaches spread this message as well. However, research has not shown a consistent benefit on bone health with high intakes of milk, and furthermore has suggested potential harm with certain conditions like prostate cancer. [1]

Research on milk often produces contrary findings. Some reasons may be the wide range of different nutritional qualities in milk and how milk intake is measured, as seen in the following factors:

The amount of milk that is considered a “high” or “low” intake can vary among populations studied. For example, people from Japan tend to drink about less than half of the milk consumed in Western countries [2]
Are different classifications of milk included, or just one type? Whole, reduced-fat, fat-free, or organic?
The composition of milk (fat, protein from varying amino acids) may differ depending on the breed and feed of the cows.
Are other factors in the diet considered, such as if the participants are eating plenty of fruits and vegetables, or large amounts of processed meat or refined carbohydrates, which can confound the true health effects of milk?
Different forms of dairy foods, such as cheese, or yogurt, may have health effects different than milk.

Bottom line

The health benefits of milk appear to be stronger for fermented types like yogurt, which play a role in the gut microbiome. Milk possesses several individual nutrients that can affect blood pressure and bone health, but some of their health-promoting effects may be weakened by whole milk’s high saturated fat content. Although popular media articles have speculated that whole milk is not less healthful than skim milk, research has not supported this statement in regards to diabetes and heart disease, and a high intake of any type of milk can lead to weight gain due to the extra calories.

For Your Health and the Planet’s Health

Purchase

Milk is often sold in cartons or opaque containers because too much exposure to light can cause a loss of vitamin A and B2. Choose a carton with the latest sell-by or use-by date (indicating it is the freshest). Most milk sold in supermarkets is pasteurized and homogenized, processing techniques that use heat to kill most of the bacteria present and break down fat molecules so that texture of milk remains smooth and creamy.

Cheese

Cheese is an age-old staple, beloved for its richness, creaminess, flavor, and satiating qualities. It was discovered in ancient civilizations during the rise of agriculture and domestication of sheep and goats for their milk. By accident, when the milk was left sitting out in the sun for hours, it turned sour and the protein components curdled into solids. When the liquid portion, or whey, was drained and removed leaving only the solid curds, farmers realized these curds had a pleasing taste.

Since then, countries around the world have experimented with cheese-making, varying the types of milk, how long the cheese is allowed to age and ripen, and using different additives like salt or acid to produce unique textures and flavors. India is known for its mild-tasting soft paneer, Greece discovered salty crumbly feta made from sheep or goat’s milk, and Sardinia developed the hard, pungent grating cheese called Pecorino Romano.

Cheese is a nutrient-dense dairy food, providing protein, fats, and minerals. Some hard block cheeses that contain little moisture like Parmigiano-Reggiano and aged cheddar are easily stored and travel well because they do not require refrigeration. Cheese may be better tolerated than milk in some people because it is lower in lactose, a type of sugar that is not easily digested if people lack the enzyme to break it down.

Source Of

The nutrients in cheese vary. One ounce of hard cheese, or a wedge about the size of your thumb, contains about 120 calories, 8 grams (g) of protein, 6 g saturated fat, and 180 milligrams (mg) of calcium. A half-cup of soft cheese like 4% full-fat cottage cheese has about 120 calories, 14 g protein, 3 g saturated fat, and 80 mg of calcium. Most cheeses are high in sodium with 300-450 mg per serving because salt is a key ingredient to hold moisture and prevent overgrowth of bacteria. However, some cheeses like goat, whole-milk mozzarella, and Swiss are low in sodium with only 50-100 mg per serving.

Cheese and Health

Full-fat dairy foods contain a high amount of saturated fat and some cholesterol. Milk fat is about 70% saturated fat, 25% monounsaturated, and 5% polyunsaturated. Because a high intake of saturated fat can increase LDL cholesterol levels, and because cheese is often high in sodium, it is generally recommended to eat cheese in limited amounts as its components may exert a negative health effect.

However, there is ongoing debate about the impact of cheese on health. Though the U.S. Dietary Guidelines recommend choosing low-fat dairy (milk, yogurt, and cheese) to prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD), some reports suggest that full-fat dairy may lower risk of CVD and type 2 diabetes. [1] It is suggested in these studies that perhaps specific nutrients in cheese may be protective for the heart, like calcium and conjugated linoleic acid, and that the types of saturated fatty acids in cheese have a different effect on the heart than other types such as that in red meat. During the processing of some cheeses, bacteria are added during the fermentation stage, which may alter its effects on blood cholesterol. However, this is a fairly new theory with early evidence arising mainly from certain cheeses manufactured with probiotics.

An important point to consider is that many published studies showing a health benefit of cheese are funded by industries such as dairy associations or large commercial corporations that sell dairy foods. The studies discussed below did not have industry conflicts of interest, to the best of our knowledge.

It appears that cheese might have some benefit with strokes and weight changes, specifically when replacing red meat in the diet. That said, the dietary patterns associated with cheese intake can make a difference. In the U.S. for example, cheese is often added to a pizza or burger containing refined grains, meats high in saturated fats, and sodium. Such a dietary pattern is likely to have an adverse health effect regardless of the amount of cheese consumed.

Bottom Line

Although cheese is high in saturated fat and sodium, it is also rich in calcium and protein, and some fermented types contain probiotics. One can enjoy a modest amount of cheese as part of a healthful diet, but how it is eaten is key. Eating cheese with foods like refined grains (white pasta, bread, crackers, etc.) and processed meats may negate its health benefits. On the other hand, cheese may provide health benefits if consumed as a replacement for red and processed meats or eaten as a snack instead of potato chips (although nuts would still be a healthier snack option!).

For Your Health and the Planet’s Health

The production of dairy foods places considerable demand on land, water, and other natural resources, and dairy-producing ruminant animals like cattle, sheep, and goats generate methane—a powerful greenhouse gas. In identifying a dietary pattern both healthy for people and sustainable for the planet, the “planetary health diet” sets the target for dairy foods at 250 grams per day, with a range of 0 to 500 grams per day. 250 grams is about one (8-ounce) cup of milk, or equivalent amounts of cheese (because milk is about 90% water, this amounts to about 1 oz of hard cheese).

Production

There are three main components for making cheese: the milk, a coagulant, and bacterial cultures. Cheese is made mostly of milk, whether from cows, sheep, goats, buffalo or a blend of these milks. A coagulant is a substance added to milk to help solids form out of the liquid portion. This is typically an acid like vinegar, or rennet, a natural enzyme found in the stomach lining of cows. Starter bacteria are added to help with coagulation, impart flavor and texture, and prevent the growth of harmful organisms. They feed on lactose sugar in the milk. You can see the work of bacteria in the eye holes in Swiss cheese or in the pungency of sharp cheddar. Sometimes molds are added that produce an unusual appearance like the greyish-blue veins in blue cheese and the hard rinds of Brie and Camembert.

Pasteurized or raw milk may be used. Both types of milk are heated to a temperature to allow the starter bacteria to grow and ferment the milk. If raw milk is used, the cheese must further be aged for at least two months to reduce the exposure to harmful pathogens present in the milk. A coagulant is then added with heat, after which the whey is drained out. At this point, salt or herbs may be added and the cheese may be pressed into blocks. Depending on the type of cheese, it will be stored from months to years until the desired ripening and aging is achieved.

Yogurt

Yogurt is a staple food in several cultures, originating from countries in Western Asia and the Middle East. The word yogurt is believed to be derived from the Turkish word “yoğurmak,” which means to thicken, coagulate, or curdle. [1] Historical accounts describe nomadic herdsmen carrying milk in pouches made of animal skins. Naturally occurring enzymes in the pouches that were carried close to the body produced enough body heat to ferment the milk, producing an edible food that lasted longer than milk; thus the introduction of yogurt!

Yogurt is made when heated milk is combined with bacteria, specifically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, and left to sit for several hours at a warm temperature (110-115°F). Additional types of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria may be added. The bacteria convert the sugar in milk, called lactose, to lactic acid, which thickens the milk and develops its distinctive tart flavor.

References to yogurt and health date back to 6000 BCE, as seen in Indian Ayurvedic medicinal texts. In the 1900s, the Bulgarian microbiologist Stamen Grigorov discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacillus, a strain of the bacillus bacteria not naturally found in the human gut that caused the fermentation of yogurt. He also researched the specific health effects of lactic acid.

Today, yogurt can be found in a variety of forms—including plain, but often with added fruit or sweeteners. Thickeners and stabilizers such as gelatin and pectins may also be added for a thicker texture and richer taste.

Individuals with lactose intolerance who cannot tolerate dairy products may be able to eat some yogurt because of its lower concentration of lactose. Fermentation by the bacteria breaks down lactose to lactic acid. Another option may be plant-based yogurts, which do not contain lactose.

Source Of

Protein
Calcium
Phosphorus
B vitamins – riboflavin and B12 (animal-based yogurt only)

Yogurt and Health

Yogurt offers several important nutrients including protein and calcium. However, much of the research on yogurt’s health benefits centers on its live bacterial content, which is also present in other fermented foods like kefir, kimchi, and sauerkraut. [2] It has been proposed that a lower number of some bacterial strains in the body may influence risk of certain disease conditions including obesity, type 2 diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, and chronic inflammatory diseases such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. [3, 4] A plant-based diet is associated with supporting a diverse and probably healthier gut microbiota more than a diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in meat, [5] and yogurt consumption may also help to increase microbiota diversity in the gut. [6] Learn more about the body’s microbiome.

Epidemiological research on specific health effects of yogurt is still limited but a few studies suggest a benefit. In a study following three large cohorts for up to 20 years that included 120,877 men and women free of obesity and chronic diseases at baseline, yogurt consumption appeared to protect from weight gain. [7] The authors suggested that changes in colonic bacteria from eating the yogurt may have influenced weight changes. Daily yogurt intake may also protect against heart disease and type 2 diabetes. [8,9] Two meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies found an 18% and 14% lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes with daily yogurt intake. [10,11] Why yogurt affects diabetes is unclear, but it is believed that helpful bacteria in the yogurt may reduce inflammation or improve the action of the body’s natural insulin.

For Your Health and the Planet’s Health

Purchase

Along with fat content, flavor, and type of milk from which the yogurt is derived (cow, goat, etc.), here are some other terms you may find in the yogurt aisle:

Greek yogurt, also called “strained yogurt” or “yogurt cheese.”

Yogurt that is strained to remove the whey portion, resulting in a thicker consistency than unstrained yogurt while preserving yogurt’s distinctive, sour taste.

Plant-based or non-dairy yogurts

Stemming from the rise in popularity of plant-based non-dairy milks, yogurts made from soy, coconut, nuts, rice, and other plant foods have become more common on supermarket shelves. Note that not all plant-based yogurts undergo fermentation so they may not contain live bacteria. Plant-based yogurts may be lower in protein, calcium, and other nutrients unless they are fortified, so check the Nutrition Facts label if these nutrients are important in your diet.

Probiotic

Refers to foods, beverages, and supplements containing specific strains of live bacteria or microbiota. Food manufacturers may add additional probiotic strains for perceived health benefits. However, the exact amount of probiotics and strain of bacteria that yield a beneficial health effect will vary among individuals and is not well-researched.

CFUs or Colony Forming Units

The number of living bacteria per gram. This is an indication of how many live bacteria are present in the yogurt at the time of manufacture. Yogurt typically contains at least 1,000,000, or 10⁶ CFUs, which is the minimum needed to display a “Live and Active Cultures” seal on the packaging. This minimum number is the standard provided because it is expected that some bacteria will be destroyed when passing through the digestive tract and exposed to stomach acid. Though food manufacturers often promote the health benefits of multiple strains of bacteria and a high amount of CFUs, with some products offering billions of CFUs, research does not support these claims.

Make
If you want to try making strained yogurt at home, it’s not as difficult as you might think:
1. Heat 1/2 gallon of milk (may be skim, 2%, or whole). Pour the milk into a 3-quart saucepan and set over medium heat. Warm the milk until almost boiling when small bubbles appear; stir the milk periodically to prevent scorching.
2. Cool the milk to a warm temperature of about 110°-115° F and transfer to a glass or ceramic bowl. A higher temperature can destroy the bacteria, while a cooler temperature can prevent fermentation.
3. Whisk into the milk ½ cup plain yogurt with live cultures or a yogurt starter package. Cover the bowl with a lid or clean plate. Wrap the bowl in a towel.
4. Heat oven to warm setting for 1-2 minutes and turn on oven light. Turn off the oven (leave light on) and place yogurt into oven. Let sit for at least 4 hours but may be left overnight. The oven temperature should be about 110°F.
5. The yogurt is then ready to use. If you prefer this thinner consistency, refrigerate for a few hours before eating. If you wish a thicker Greek-style yogurt, strain the yogurt. Place a fine mesh sieve over a large bowl and line with a coffee filter or cheesecloth. Pour the yogurt into the sieve and refrigerate for up to several hours, which will strain out the liquid whey and excess water. The yogurt may be stored in the refrigerator for about 7 days.
Serve
Choose plain and unsweetened yogurt, either strained or unstrained. Add herbs and spices for savory preparations, or fresh fruit and spices like cinnamon, nutmeg, or ginger for a sweeter dish. Top with almonds, pecans, or other nuts for a crunchy addition.
For a delicious tzatziki sauce, blend together 1 whole diced peeled cucumber, 2-3 tablespoons lemon juice, 1 tablespoon extra virgin olive oil, 1 garlic clove, 1 tablespoon dill, and a pinch of salt and black pepper. Stir mixture into 3 cups of plain Greek yogurt. Serve as a sauce or a dip.
Substitute plain yogurt in recipes calling for sour cream or mayonnaise. Examples:
- For tuna salad, use half plain yogurt and half mayo. For extra zip, try adding any of the following to taste: Dijon mustard, chili powder, garlic powder, diced dill pickles, or red onion.
- For a creamy honey mustard salad dressing or marinade, whisk together 1/2 cup 2% plain Greek yogurt, 2 tablespoons yellow mustard, 3 tablespoons honey, 1 tablespoon garlic powder, 1 tablespoon lemon juice, and pinch of salt and pepper.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

Did You Know?

Several other animals produce milk including sheep, goat, and yaks. These types of milk are more popular in European, Middle Eastern, and Asian countries than in the U.S. Sheep’s milk can be made into various cheeses like feta and ricotta, and goat’s milk produces a popular cheese called goat cheese or chevre.

How do they compare nutritionally? Sheep, goat, and yak milks contain about the same if not more calcium than cow’s milk. The amount of protein and carbohydrate are about the same. They all contain some lactose but less than found in cow’s milk, so they may be easier to digest for people with lactose sensitivity.

Some types of cheese are low in lactose and may be tolerated in people who have lactose intolerance. Firmer cheeses such as cheddar, mozzarella, and Swiss cheese tend to be lower in lactose, but creamy cheeses like cottage, ricotta, and cream cheese are higher in lactose.
Europe produces and eats the most cheese worldwide. The biggest consumers, the French, eat about 57 pounds of cheese annually per person! Americans eat less at about 34 pounds a year, however the most notable difference between the two countries may be the typical role of cheese on the plate. In France, cheese is often served as a post-meal palate cleanser before dessert, or as the dessert itself. It is purposefully and artfully cut into various shapes and arranged with other types of cheeses to contrast flavors and textures of soft, medium, and hard. It is often eaten slowly and savored, and sips of wine may be taken between each bite. In the U.S., cheese is more often added to numerous mixed dishes—melted into pasta, topping a burger, coating a pizza, or stacked on crackers. Of course, these approaches to cheese consumption are not mutually exclusive. Brie can be found in Boston, just as easy as cheesy pizza in Paris.

Greek yogurt did not originate in Greece! Although strained yogurt or straggisto is a staple dish in Greece, the term “Greek yogurt” was first made popular by a commercial yogurt company located in Greece, and later used by other U.S. and European yogurt companies. Britain is the only country that regulates the term, where yogurt must be produced in Greece to carry the title.
Some calcium is removed from Greek yogurt during the straining process. Commercial Greek yogurts may add back calcium, but some do not so if you are including Greek yogurt in your diet as a calcium source, be sure to check the Nutrition Facts label.
Some yogurts can contain up to 20-25 grams of sugar per 5 oz. container. Though some of this may come from naturally occurring lactose, most will be from added sweeteners. If you see sugar or other forms of sugar among the top four ingredients in the Ingredients list, consider choosing a lower sugar yogurt or use plain yogurt with your own addition of fresh fruit or a drizzle of honey. See Added Sugar in the Diet.

References

U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Washington, DC: U.S. Gov’t Printing Offices.
Elders PJ, Lips P, Netelenbos JC, van Ginkel FC, Khoe E, van der Vijgh WJ, van der Stelt PF. Long‐term effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in perimenopausal women. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 1994 Jul;9(7):963-70.
Bian S, Hu J, Zhang K, Wang Y, Yu M, Ma J. Dairy product consumption and risk of hip fracture: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2018 Dec 1;18(1):165.
Matía-Martín P, Torrego-Ellacuría M, Larrad-Sainz A, Fernández-Pérez C, Cuesta-Triana F, Rubio-Herrera MÁ. Effects of milk and dairy products on the prevention of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in Europeans and non-Hispanic Whites from North America: a systematic review and updated meta-analysis. Advances in Nutrition. 2019 May 1;10(suppl_2):S120-43.
Vogel KA, Martin BR, McCabe LD, Peacock M, Warden SJ, McCabe GP, Weaver CM. The effect of dairy intake on bone mass and body composition in early pubertal girls and boys: a randomized controlled trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2017 May 1;105(5):1214-29.
Feskanich D, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Frazier AL, Willett WC. Milk consumption during teenage years and risk of hip fractures in older adults. JAMA pediatrics. 2014 Jan 1;168(1):54-60.
Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hicks PD, Gunn SK. Pubertal girls only partially adapt to low dietary calcium intakes. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 2004 May;19(5):759-63.
Willett WC, Ludwig DS. Milk and Health. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020 Feb 13;382(7):644-54.
Bernstein AM, Sun Q, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Willett WC. Major dietary protein sources and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation. 2010 Aug 31;122(9):876.
Bernstein AM, Pan A, Rexrode KM, Stampfer M, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D, Willett WC. Dietary protein sources and the risk of stroke in men and women. Stroke. 2012 Mar;43(3):637-44.
Chen M, Li Y, Sun Q, Pan A, Manson JE, Rexrode KM, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Hu FB. Dairy fat and risk of cardiovascular disease in 3 cohorts of US adults. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2016 Nov 1;104(5):1209-17.
Dehghan M, Mente A, Rangarajan S, Sheridan P, Mohan V, Iqbal R, Gupta R, Lear S, Wentzel-Viljoen E, Avezum A, Lopez-Jaramillo P. Association of dairy intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 21 countries from five continents (PURE): a prospective cohort study. The Lancet. 2018 Nov 24;392(10161):2288-97.
Chen M, Sun Q, Giovannucci E, Mozaffarian D, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis. BMC medicine. 2014 Dec 1;12(1):215.*Disclosure: DM is a member of the Unilever North America Scientific Advisory Board.
Gijsbers L, Ding EL, Malik VS, De Goede J, Geleijnse JM, Soedamah-Muthu SS. Consumption of dairy foods and diabetes incidence: a dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2016 Apr 1;103(4):1111-24.*Disclosure: SSS-M, KMG, and ELD reported receiving prior funding from one or more of the following: Dairy Research Institute, Global Dairy Platform, Dutch Dairy Association, and Dairy Australia. Any prior sponsors had no role in the design and conduct of the study, data collection and analysis, interpretation of the data, decision to publish, or preparation of this manuscript.
Yakoob MY, Shi P, Willett WC, Rexrode KM, Campos H, Orav EJ, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D. Circulating biomarkers of dairy fat and risk of incident diabetes mellitus among men and women in the United States in two large prospective cohorts. Circulation. 2016 Apr 26;133(17):1645-54.*Disclosure: DM reports ad hoc honoraria from Amarin, Astra Zeneca, Haas Avocado Board, Bunge, and Life Sciences Research Organization. Harvard University holds a patent, listing DM among co-inventors, for use of trans-palmitoleic acid to prevent and treat insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and related conditions.
Chen M, Pan A, Malik VS, Hu FB. Effects of dairy intake on body weight and fat: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2012 Oct 1;96(4):735-47.
Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2392-404.
Ganmaa D, Cui X, Feskanich D, Hankinson SE, Willett WC. Milk, dairy intake and risk of endometrial cancer: A 26‐year follow‐up. International journal of cancer. 2012 Jun 1;130(11):2664-71.
Yang M, Kenfield SA, Van Blarigan EL, Wilson KM, Batista JL, Sesso HD, Ma J, Stampfer MJ, Chavarro JE. Dairy intake after prostate cancer diagnosis in relation to disease‐specific and total mortality. International journal of cancer. 2015 Nov 15;137(10):2462-9.
Aune D, Navarro Rosenblatt DA, Chan DS, Vieira AR, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Vatten LJ, Norat T. Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015 Jan 1;101(1):87-117.
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Expert Report 2018. Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer. https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Meat-Fish-and-Dairy-products.pdf Accessed 11/18/19.
Murphy N, Norat T, Ferrari P, Jenab M, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, Skeie G, Olsen A, Tjønneland A, Dahm CC, Overvad K, Boutron-Ruault MC. Consumption of dairy products and colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). PloS one. 2013 Sep 2;8(9):e72715.
Fraser GE, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Orlich M, Mashchak A, Sirirat R, Knutsen S. Dairy, soy, and risk of breast cancer: those confounded milks. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2020 Feb 25.
Linos E, Willett WC, Cho E, Frazier L. Adolescent diet in relation to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers. 2010 Mar 1;19(3):689-96.
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, Garnett T, Tilman D, DeClerck F, Wood A, Jonell M. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet. 2019 Feb 2;393(10170):447-92.

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Coffee and Health Benefits

August 18, 2022August 17, 2022 by Inthealthgroup

Coffee is a drink made from the roasted and ground seeds ( coffee beans ) of a tropical plant. Coffee is the roasted seeds of the coffee plant when whole or ground.

Coffee and Health Benefits & Why Should We Drink Coffee?

Coffee lovers around the world who reach for their favorite morning brew probably aren’t thinking about its health benefits or risks. And yet this beverage has been subject to a long history of debate. In 1991 coffee was included in a list of possible carcinogens by the World Health Organization. By 2016 it was exonerated, as research found that the beverage was not associated with an increased risk of cancer; on the contrary, there was a decreased risk of certain cancers among those who drink coffee regularly once smoking history was properly accounted for. Additional accumulating research suggests that when consumed in moderation, coffee can be considered a healthy beverage. Why then in 2018 did one U.S. state pass legislation that coffee must bear a cancer warning label? Read on to explore the complexities of coffee.

Plant chemicals: polyphenols including chlorogenic acid and quinic acid, and diterpenes including cafestol and kahweol.

One 8-ounce cup of brewed coffee contains about 95 mg of caffeine. A moderate amount of coffee is generally defined as 3-5 cups a day, or on average 400 mg of caffeine, according to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Source Of:

Coffee and Health

Coffee is an intricate mixture of more than a thousand chemicals. [1] The cup of coffee you order from a coffee shop is likely different from the coffee you brew at home. What defines a cup is the type of coffee bean used, how it is roasted, the amount of grind, and how it is brewed. Human response to coffee or caffeine can also vary substantially across individuals. Low to moderate doses of caffeine (50–300 mg) may cause increased alertness, energy, and ability to concentrate, while higher doses may have negative effects such as anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, and increased heart rate. [2] Still, the cumulative research on coffee points in the direction of a health benefit. [3,4] Does the benefit stem from the caffeine or plant compounds in the coffee bean? Is there a certain amount of coffee needed a day to produce a health benefit?

A large body of evidence suggests that consumption of caffeinated coffee does not increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancers. In fact, consumption of 3 to 5 standard cups of coffee daily has been consistently associated with a reduced risk of several chronic diseases. [4] However, some individuals may not tolerate higher amounts of caffeine due to symptoms of jitteriness, anxiety, and insomnia. Specifically, those who have difficulty controlling their blood pressure may want to moderate their coffee intake. Pregnant women are also advised to aim for less than 200 mg of caffeine daily, the amount in 2 cups of coffee, because caffeine passes through the placenta into the fetus and has been associated with pregnancy loss and low birth weight. [3, 27] Because of the potential negative side effects some people experience when drinking caffeinated coffee, it is not necessary to start drinking it if you do not already or to increase the amount you currently drink, as there are many other dietary strategies to improve your health. Decaffeinated coffee is a good option if one is sensitive to caffeine, and according to the research summarized above, it offers similar health benefits as caffeinated coffee. It’s also important to keep in mind how you enjoy your brew. The extra calories, sugar, and saturated fat in a coffee house beverage loaded with whipped cream and flavored syrup might offset any health benefits found in a basic black coffee.

Types

Coffee beans are the seeds of a fruit called a coffee cherry. Coffee cherries grow on coffee trees from a genus of plants called Coffea. There are a wide variety of species of coffee plants, ranging from shrubs to trees.

Type of bean

There are two main types of coffee species, Arabica and Robusta. Arabica originates from Ethiopia and produces a mild, flavorful tasting coffee. It is the most popular type worldwide. However, it is expensive to grow because the Arabica plant is sensitive to the environment, requiring shade, humidity, and steady temperatures between 60-75 degrees Fahrenheit. The Robusta coffee plant is more economical to grow because it is resistant to disease and survives in a wider range of temperatures between 65-97 degrees Fahrenheit. It can also withstand harsh climate changes such as variations in rainfall and strong sunlight.

Type of roast

Coffee beans start out green. They are roasted at a high heat to produce a chemical change that releases the rich aroma and flavor that we associate with coffee. They are then cooled and ground for brewing. Roasting levels range from light to medium to dark. The lighter the roast, the lighter the color and roasted flavor and the higher its acidity. Dark roasts produce a black bean with little acidity and a bitter roasted flavor. The popular French roast is medium-dark.

Type of grind

A medium grind is the most common and used for automatic drip coffee makers. A fine grind is used for deeper flavors like espresso, which releases the oils, and a coarse grind is used in coffee presses.

Decaffeinated coffee

This is an option for those who experience unpleasant side effects from caffeine. The two most common methods used to remove caffeine from coffee is to apply chemical solvents (methylene chloride or ethyl acetate) or carbon dioxide gas. Both are applied to steamed or soaked beans, which are then allowed to dry. The solvents bind to caffeine and both evaporate when the beans are rinsed and/or dried. According to U.S. regulations, at least 97% of the caffeine must be removed to carry the decaffeinated label, so there may be trace residual amounts of caffeine. Both methods may cause some loss of flavor as other naturally occurring chemicals in coffee beans that impart their unique flavor and scent may be destroyed during processing.

Store

Place beans or ground coffee in an airtight opaque container at room temperature away from sunlight. Inside a cool dark cabinet would be ideal. Exposure to moisture, air, heat, and light can strip coffee of its flavor. Coffee packaging does not preserve the coffee well for extended periods, so transfer larger amounts of coffee to airtight containers.

Coffee can be frozen if stored in a very airtight container. Exposure to even small amounts of air in the freezer can lead to freezer burn.

- Make

Follow directions on the coffee package and your coffee machine, but generally the ratio is 1-2 tablespoons of ground coffee per 6 ounces of water.

For optimal coffee flavor, drink soon after brewing. The beverage will lose flavor with time.

Use ground coffee within a few days and whole beans within two weeks.

Food and Nutrition: What Everyone Needs to Know

Cancer

Coffee may affect how cancer develops, ranging from the initiation of a cancer cell to its death. For example, coffee may stimulate the production of bile acids and speed digestion through the colon, which can lower the amount of carcinogens to which colon tissue is exposed. Various polyphenols in coffee have been shown to prevent cancer cell growth in animal studies. Coffee has also been associated with decreased estrogen levels, a hormone linked to several types of cancer. [5] Caffeine itself may interfere with the growth and spread of cancer cells. [6] Coffee also appears to lower inflammation, a risk factor for many cancers.

The 2018 uproar in California due to warning labels placed on coffee products stemmed from a chemical in the beverage called acrylamide, which is formed when the beans are roasted. Acrylamide is also found in some starchy foods that are processed with high heat like French fries, cookies, crackers, and potato chips. It was classified in the National Toxicology Program’s 2014 Report on Carcinogens, as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen” based on studies in lab animals. However, there is not yet evidence of a health effect in humans from eating acrylamide in food. Regardless, in March 2018 a California judge ruled that all California coffee sellers must warn consumers about the “potential cancer risk” from drinking coffee, because coffee-selling companies failed to show that acrylamide did not pose a significant health risk. California’s law Proposition 65, or The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, fueled the ruling, which requires a warning label to be placed on any ingredient from a list of 900 confirmed or suspected carcinogens.

However, many cancer experts disputed the ruling, stating that the metabolism of acrylamide differs considerably in animals and humans, and the high amount of acrylamide used in animal research is not comparable to the amount present in food. They cited the beneficial health effects of coffee, with improved antioxidant responses and reduced inflammation, both factors important in cancer prevention. Evidence from the American Institute for Cancer Research concludes that drinking coffee may reduce risk for endometrial and liver cancer, and based on a systematic review of a large body of research, it is not a risk for the cancers that were studied.

In June 2018, the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) proposed a new regulation exempting coffee from displaying cancer warnings under Proposition 65. This proposal was based on a review of more than 1,000 studies published by the World Health Organization’s International Agency for Research on Cancer that found inadequate evidence that drinking coffee causes cancer. In January 2019, OEHHA completed its review and response to comments and submitted the regulation to the Office of Administrative Law (OAL) for final review.

Type 2 Diabetes

Although ingestion of caffeine can increase blood sugar in the short-term, long-term studies have shown that habitual coffee drinkers have a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared with non-drinkers. The polyphenols and minerals such as magnesium in coffee may improve the effectiveness of insulin and glucose metabolism in the body.

In a meta-analysis of 45,335 people with type 2 diabetes followed for up to 20 years, an association was found with increasing cups of coffee and a lower risk of developing diabetes. Compared with no coffee, the decreased risk ranged from 8% with 1 cup a day to 33% for 6 cups a day. Caffeinated coffee showed a slightly greater benefit than decaffeinated coffee. [7]
Another meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies showed similar associations. When comparing the highest intake of coffee (up to 10 cups a day) with the lowest (<1 cup), there was a 30% decreased risk of type 2 diabetes in those drinking the highest amounts of coffee and caffeine and a 20% decreased risk when drinking decaffeinated coffee. Further analysis showed that the incidence of diabetes decreased by 12% for every 2 extra cups of coffee a day, and 14% for every 200 mg a day increase in caffeine intake (up to 700 mg a day). [8]

Heart Health

Naturally occurring polyphenols in both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee can act as antioxidants to reduce damaging oxidative stress and inflammation of cells. It may have neurological benefits in some people and act as an antidepressant. [13] Caffeine may affect mental states such as increasing alertness and attention, reducing anxiety, and improving mood. [14] A moderate caffeine intake of less than 6 cups of coffee per day has been associated with a lower risk of depression and suicide. However in a few cases of sensitive individuals, higher amounts of caffeine may increase anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia. Suddenly stopping caffeine intake can cause headache, fatigue, anxiety, and low mood for a few days and may persist for up to a week. [15]

A prospective cohort study following 263,923 participants from the National Institutes of Health and American Association of Retired Persons found that those who drank 4 or more cups of coffee a day were almost 10% less likely to become depressed than those who drank none. [15]
In a meta-analysis of observational studies including 330,677 participants, the authors found a 24% reduced risk of depression when comparing the highest (4.5 cups/day) to lowest (<1 cup) intakes of coffee. They found an 8% decreased risk of depression with each additional cup of coffee consumed. There was also a 28% reduced risk of depression comparing the highest to lowest intakes of caffeine, with the greatest benefit occurring with caffeine intakes between 68 and 509 mg a day (about 6 oz. to 2 cups of coffee). [16]
A review looking at three large prospective cohorts of men and women in the U.S. found a decreasing risk of suicide with increasing coffee consumption. When compared with no-coffee drinkers, the pooled risk of suicide was 45% lower among those who drank 2-3 cups daily and 53% lower among those who drank 4 or more cups daily. There was no association between decaffeinated coffee and suicide risk, suggesting that caffeine was the key factor, rather than plant compounds in coffee. [17]

Neuro-degenerative Diseases

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is mainly caused by low dopamine levels. There is consistent evidence from epidemiologic studies that higher consumption of caffeine is associated with lower risk of developing PD. The caffeine in coffee has been found in animal and cell studies to protect cells in the brain that produce dopamine.
- A systematic review of 26 studies including cohort and case-control studies found a 25% lower risk of developing PD with higher intakes of caffeinated coffee. It also found a 24% decreased risk with every 300 mg increase in caffeine intake. [18]
- A Finnish cohort study tracked coffee consumption and PD development in 6,710 men and women over 22 years. In that time, after adjusting for known risks of PD, those who drank at least 10 cups of coffee a day had a significantly lower risk of developing the disease than non-drinkers. [19]
- A large cohort of men and women were followed for 10 and 16 years, respectively, to study caffeine and coffee intake on PD. The results showed an association in men drinking the most caffeine (6 or more cups of coffee daily) and a 58% lower risk of PD compared with men drinking no coffee. Women showed the lowest risk when drinking moderate intakes of 1-3 cups coffee daily. [20]
Alzheimer’s disease: In the CAIDE (Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Aging and Dementia) study, drinking 3-5 cups of coffee a day at midlife (mean age 50 years) was associated with a significantly decreased risk of Alzheimer’s disease later in life compared with low coffee drinkers after 21 years of follow-up. [2]
- However, three systematic reviews were inconclusive about coffee’s effect on Alzheimer’s disease due to a limited number of studies and a high variation in study types that produced mixed findings. Overall the results suggested a trend towards a protective effect of caffeine against late-life dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, but no definitive statements could be made. The authors stated the need for larger studies with longer follow-up periods. Randomized controlled trials studying a protective effect of coffee or caffeine on the progression of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia are not yet available. [21-23]

Gallstones

There are various proposed actions of caffeine or components in coffee that may prevent the formation of gallstones. The most common type of gallstone is made of cholesterol. Coffee may prevent cholesterol from forming into crystals in the gallbladder. It may stimulate contractions in the gallbladder and increase the flow of bile so that cholesterol does not collect. [24]

A study of 46,008 men tracked the development of gallstones and their coffee consumption for 10 years. After adjusting for other factors known to cause gallstones, the study concluded that men who consistently drank coffee were significantly less likely to develop gallstones compared to men who did not. [24] A similar large study found the same result in women. [25]

Mortality

In a large cohort of more than 200,000 participants followed for up to 30 years, an association was found between drinking moderate amounts of coffee and lower risk of early death. Compared with non-drinkers, those who drank 3-5 cups of coffee daily were 15% less likely to die early from all causes, including cardiovascular disease, suicide, and Parkinson’s disease. Both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee provided benefits. The authors suggested that bioactive compounds in coffee may be responsible for interfering with disease development by reducing inflammation and insulin resistance. [26]
In a large prospective cohort of more than 500,000 people followed for 10 years, an association was found between drinking higher amounts of coffee and lower rates of death from all causes. Compared with non-drinkers, those drinking 6-7 cups daily had a 16% lower risk of early death. [26] A protective association was also found in those who drank 8 or more cups daily. The protective effect was present regardless of a genetic predisposition to either faster or slower caffeine metabolism. Instant and decaffeinated coffee showed a similar health benefit.

Is Coffee Good for Your Brain?

Coffee is one of the world’s most popular drinks. The morning beverage (or, for some, afternoon pick-me-up) is most known for its high caffeine content, perking up even the most tired eyes.

Given coffee’s popularity, several studies have examined its effects on your health, both immediate and in the long term.

As it turns out, moderate coffee consumption is associated with health benefits, including a reduced risk of prediabetes and liver disease.

Researchers have also looked into caffeine’s effect on your brain — and the findings so far look quite promising when it comes to your cognitive health.

Coffee contains hundreds of bioactive compounds that contribute to its potentially powerful health benefits.

Many of these compounds are antioxidants, which fight the damage caused by harmful free radicals in your cells.

Here are coffee’s most important active ingredients:

Caffeine

The main active ingredient in coffee, caffeine stimulates the central nervous system.

Chlorogenic Acids

These polyphenol antioxidants may benefit some biological pathways, such as blood sugar metabolism and high blood pressure.

Cafestol and Kahweol

Present in coffee’s natural oil, these compounds are found in high amounts in unfiltered coffee.

Trigonelline

This alkaloid compound is unstable at high heat, and during roasting it forms nicotinic acid, also known as niacin (vitamin B3).

However, the amounts of these substances in a cup of coffee may vary.

Coffee can be a healthy beverage, packed with hundreds of biologically active compounds, including caffeine, chlorogenic acid, trigonelline, cafestol, and kahweol.

How Does Coffee Affect the Brain?

Caffeine affects the central nervous system (CNS) in several ways.

The effects are mainly believed to stem from the way caffeine interacts with adenosine receptors.

Adenosine is a neurotransmitter in your brain that promotes sleep.

Neurons in your brain have specific receptors that adenosine can attach to. When it binds to those receptors, it inhibits the tendency of neurons to fire. This slows neural activity.

Adenosine normally builds up during the day and eventually makes you drowsy when it’s time to go to sleep.

Caffeine and adenosine have a similar molecular structure. So when caffeine is present in the brain, it competes with adenosine to bind to the same receptors.

However, caffeine doesn’t slow the firing of your neurons like adenosine does. Instead, it prevents the adenosine from slowing down neural activity.

Caffeine promotes CNS stimulation, making you feel alert.

Caffeine is the key reason why coffee boosts brain function. This stimulant blocks adenosine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that makes you sleepy.

How Caffeine Can Boost Brain Function

Caffeine can lead to an increase in resting brain entropy.

Brain entropy is vital to brain function, and high levels point to high processing abilities. An increase in resting brain entropy suggests higher information-processing capacity.

Caffeine also stimulates the CNS by promoting the release of other neurotransmitters, including noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin.

Caffeine may improve various aspects of brain function, including:

mood
reaction time
vigilance
attention
learning
general mental function

That said, you may develop a tolerance to caffeine over time. This means you will need to consume more coffee than before to get the same effects.

Keep in mind, however, that more isn’t always better.

In fact, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that healthy adults should only consume about 4 or 5 cups (400 milligrams) daily to avoid potentially dangerous or adverse side effects.

And if you are trying to become pregnant or are pregnant, breastfeeding, sensitive to caffeine, taking medications, or living with an underlying condition, you may want to speak with a healthcare professional.

Together you can decide what amount of caffeine is appropriate for you.

Caffeine causes changes in several neurotransmitters that may improve mood, reaction time, learning, and vigilance.

Caffeine and Memory

Coffee and caffeine may also affect your memory, but the research on this is mixed and more studies are needed.

Some studies suggest that caffeine may have a significant positive effect on both short-term and long-term memory.

Other studies report no effects on memory or have even found that caffeine impaired performance on memory tasks.

In one study, when participants consumed a caffeine tablet after studying a series of images, their ability to recognize the images 24 hours later was strengthened.

Caffeine also appeared to make these memories more resistant to being forgotten, compared with the placebo group.

While some studies have found that caffeine may improve short-term memory, others have found no effect. The effects on long-term memory need to be investigated further.

Coffee and Fatigue or Tiredness

The main reason why people drink coffee is to feel more energized and awake, so it’s no surprise that research has shown caffeine may suppress feelings of fatigue.

However, the energy boost only lasts for a certain amount of time before it starts to wear off. Then you may feel you need another cup.

Just make sure not to consume large amounts of caffeine in the late afternoon or evening, since it might disrupt your sleep at night.

If drinking coffee reduces the quality of your sleep, then it will likely have the opposite effect — rather than reducing fatigue, it may cause you to lose sleep and impair your overall brain function.

People often use coffee to counteract fatigue and tiredness. However, when consumed late in the day, caffeine may reduce the quality of your sleep and as a result make you feel more tired.

Coffee May Reduce the Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia worldwide. It generally starts slowly but gets more severe over time.

Alzheimer’s causes memory loss, as well as problems with thinking and behavior. There is currently no known cure.

Interestingly, diet-related factors may affect your risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia.

Observational studies have associated regular, moderate coffee consumption with up to a 65% lower risk of getting Alzheimer’s.

However, the protective effects of coffee and caffeine have not been confirmed by randomized controlled trials.

Consuming coffee regularly in moderate amounts is linked to a reduced risk of Alzheimer’s disease. However, higher-quality studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Coffee and Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s disease is a chronic disorder of the CNS.

It’s characterized by the death of nerve cells in the brain that secrete dopamine and are important for muscle movement.

Parkinson’s mainly affects movement and often includes tremors. There is no known cure for this condition, which makes prevention particularly important.

Interestingly, studies show that coffee may help lower the risk of Parkinson’s disease.

A large review study reported a 29% lower risk of Parkinson’s disease in people who drank 3 cups of coffee per day. Consuming 5 cups didn’t seem to add much benefit, indicating that more is not necessarily better.

The caffeine in coffee appears to be the active ingredient responsible for these protective effects.

However, it should be noted that while the evidence is substantial it is not 100% conclusive.

Consuming moderate amounts of coffee may protect against Parkinson’s disease. This effect is attributed to the caffeine.

When consumed in moderation, coffee can be very good for your brain.

In the short-term, it may improve mood, vigilance, learning, and reaction time. Long-term use may protect against brain conditions like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

Although many of these studies are observational — meaning they can’t prove cause and effect — they strongly suggest that coffee is good for your brain.

However, moderation is key. When consumed in excess, caffeine can cause anxiety, jitters, heart palpitations, and sleep problems.

Some people are sensitive to caffeine, while others can drink many cups per day without any side effects.

That said, some people definitely need to limit their caffeine intake, including children, adolescents, and pregnant people.

Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption

Did You Know?

It is a myth that darker roasts contain a higher level of caffeine than lighter roasts. Lighter roasts actually have a slightly higher concentration!
Coffee grinds should not be brewed more than once. Brewed grinds taste bitter and may no longer produce a pleasant coffee flavor.
While water is always the best choice for quenching your thirst, coffee can count towards your daily fluid goals. Although caffeine has a mild diuretic effect, it is offset by the total amount of fluid from the coffee.
A plain “black” cup of coffee is a very low calorie drink—8 ounces only contains 2 calories! However, adding sugar, cream, and milk can quickly bump up the calorie counts. A tablespoon of cream contains 52 calories, and a tablespoon of whole milk contains 9 calories. While 9 calories isn’t a lot, milk is often poured into coffee without measuring, so you may be getting several servings of milk or cream in your coffee. A tablespoon of sugar contains 48 calories, so if you take your coffee with cream and sugar, you’re adding over 100 extra calories to your daily cup.
However, the real caloric danger occurs in specialty mochas, lattes, or blended ice coffee drinks. These drinks are often super-sized and can contain anywhere from 200-500 calories, as well as an extremely large amount of sugar. With these drinks, it’s best to enjoy them as a treat or dessert, and stick with plain, minimally sweetened coffee on a regular basis

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